.  ' 


Yoimg  Americans  TJnioa 

JUDSON1A,  ARK. 


JTHE 

MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL: 

CONTAINING 

THE  PRACTICE  AND  PRINCIPLES 

OF 

WORKING  AND  MAKING  STEEL. 
A  HAND-BOOK 

FOB 

BLACKSMITHS    AND    WORKERS    IN    STEEL    AND    IRON,    WAGON-MAKERS, 

DIE-SINKERS,     CUTLEItS,     AND     MANUFACTURERS    OP     FILES 

AND     HARDWARE,     OF     STEEL     AND     IRON,     AND 

FOR     MEN    OF     SCIENCE    AND   ART.. 

BY 

FREDERICK     OVERMAN, 

MIXING   ENGINEER;  AUTHOR  OP  TUB  ^SANUFACTURE  OF  IRON,"  ETC. 

WITH     ILLUSTRATIONS. 

A    NEW    EDITION,     TO     WHICH      IS     ADDED     AN     APPENDIX,     CONTAINING 
AN     ACCOUNT    OF 

RECENT  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  STEEL, 

BY  A.  A.   FESQUET,   CHEMIST  AND  ENGINEER. 

PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS, 
810     WALNUT     STREET. 

LONDON : 

TRUBNER  &  CO., 

57    <fc    59    LUDGATE    HILL. 

1882. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  QWJJresg,  in  the  year  1873,  by 

IIKXUY  O.VUKY   1!AIKD, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librnmn  of  Congress,  nt  Washington,  D.  C. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  REVISED  EDITION. 


THE  undersigned  has  much  pleasure  in  presenting 
to  the  American  Public  a  new  and  improved  edition 
of  so  well  known,  and  so  valuable  and  popular  a  book 
as  "Overman's  Manufacture  of  Steel." 

The  Editor,  Professor  Fesquet,  has  added  an  ac- 
count of  the  various  new  processes  of  Steel  Manufac- 
ture, which  have  been  practically  tested,  and  are  fully 
approved,  and  it  is  believed  that  in  its  new  form, 
the  volume  must  prove  even  more  acceptable  in  the 
future  than  it  has  done  in  the  past. 

H.  C.  B. 
PHILADELPHIA, 
May  15,  1873. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


THE  manufacture  of  steel  is  unnecessarily 
shrouded  in  mystery,  which  has  been  the 
cause  of  its  being  not  more  generally  in  ap- 
plication than  it  is  at  the  present  time.  Steel 
is  a  superior  metal  for  most  purposes  where 
metals  are  used,  and  its  manufacture  cannot 
be  too  much  cultivated.  A  principal  obstacle 
to  its  more  general  introduction  is  its  high 
price ;  to  effect  a  reduction  in  which,  has  been 
the  aim  of  the  author  of  this  work. 

We  compare  favourably  in  most  branches 
of  manufacture,  and  indeed  eclipse  other 
nations,  except  in  the  manufacture  of  steel. 
Yet  we  have  materials  in  abundance,  and  of 
excellent  quality  for  the  purpose;  and  it 
needs  but  proper  application  to  ensure 

success. 

00  . 


vi  PREFACE. 

There  is  nothing  particularly  novel  in  this 
book,  nor  any  new  inventions  recorded  there- 
in. I  considered  it  sufficient  for  all  practical 
purposes  to  record  and  explain  what  has  been 
done,  and  confine  the  illustrations  to  such 
approved  methods  as  are  sure  to  succeed, 
assuming  that  improvements  upon  the  known 
mode  of  manufacture  are  readily  suggested  to 
the  minds  of  those  who  engage  in  it. 

All  I  have  endeavoured  to  accomplish  has 
been,  to  develope  the  science  of  manufactur- 
ing steel,  and  explain  the  philosophy  of  the 
practical  operations.  All  the  facts  recorded 
are  with  this  view,  as  I  am  satisfied  that,  if 
our  manufacturers  understood  the  philosophy 
of  the  operation,  there  is  no  doubt  they  would 
soon  accomplish  much  more  than  the  best 
practical  operator  can  perform  without  that 
knowledge. 

A  portion  of  the  volume  is  devoted  to  the 
working  of  steel  in  the  smith's  forge,  partly 
for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  principles 
involved,  but  chiefly  to  afford  a  safe  guide  to 


PREFACE.  Ml 

the  blacksmith,  who  is  always  under  the 
necessity  of  working  more  or  less  of  this 
material. 

In  conclusion,  I  need  only  say  that  my  aim 
has  been  to  be  of  use,  and  to  contribute  my 
mite  to  the  general  prosperity  of  the  country. 

PHILADELPHIA,  March  14,  1851. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FORGING Page  13 

Degrees  of  Heat 13 

Overheating 14 

Forge-fire 15 

Tuyere,  or  tue-iron ;  water  and  hot-air  tuyere;  rotary  tuyere,  16 

Form  of  its  Aperture 17 

Forge  for  Hard  Coal 19 

General  dimensions 20 

Portable  Forges 21 

Anvil ;  making  of  an  anvil ;  cast-iron  anvils ;  block 22 

Tongs:  flat-bit  tongs;  pincer-tongs ;  nail-tongs;  crook -bit  tongs,  26 

Chisels,  punches,  swages,  set-hammer 27 

Hammers,  forms  of;  sledges 27 

Fuel  for  forging  steel 30 

Flux,  principles  of;  sand,  borax,  borax-glass,  borax  and  sal- 
ammonia,  borax  and  potash 31 

Welding:  steel  to  iron;  natural  steel;  by  split  joint;  shear- 
steel  ;  cast-steel ;  to  steel  an  axe ;  shovel ;  butt  joint ;  to 

steel  a  hammer ;  wire  draw-plates :  chisels ;  scarf  joint,  35 

Blistered  steel,  value  of 40 

Shear-steel 42 

(ix) 


X  CONTENTS. 

Cast-steel •  •  •  •   *' 

Welding  steel  to  steel ;  cast-steel ;  wootz 43 

Test  of  the  quality  of  steel 46 

Hardening  of  steel;  degree  of  heat;  characteristics  of  hard- 
ened steel;  not  peculiar  to  steel;  of  wrought  and  cast- 
iron;  difference  between  hardened  iron  and  steel 46 

Test  of  hardened  steel 50 

Expansion  of  steel  in  hardening 51 

Refrigerating  fluids ;  manner  of  cooling 52 

Hardening  of  files 54 

"          of  needles  and  cutlery 55 

Making  of  steel  dies  ;  their  breakage  in  hardening 56 

Hardening  by  compression 61 

Annealing 62 

Tempering— of  small  tools;  common  tools;  knife-blades;  nee- 
dles; saw-blades;  colours  of  tempering ;  in  metal  com- 
positions   62 

Damascus  steel;  imitation  of ;  gun-barrels;  blades 66 

Case-hardening — by  charcoal,  salt  and  charcoal,  prussiate  of 
potash,  prussiate  of  potash  and  camphor,  prussiate  of 
potash  and  borax ;  description  of  iron  to  be  used 67 


CHAPTER  II. 

VARIETIES  OF  .STEEL 71 

Wootz  —  description  of  ore  from  which  it  is  made ;  furnace 

and  blast;  manner  of  its  manufacture;  philosophy  of  the 

process  7 j 

Damascus  steel;  value  of  scimitars;  imitation  of  it  by 

wrought-iron  and    lampblack;    wrought  and   cast-iron; 

alloys,  alumina  and  steel ;  etching  the  veins 75 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  III. 

GERMAN  STEEL — NATURAL  STEEL;  what  it  is  made  of;  steel- 
ore;  sparry  ore;  form  of  forge-fire  for  making  steel 81 

Blast;  cbmmon  bellows;  cylinder  blast;  fan  blast 84 

Tilt  or  force-hammer ;  construction  of;  speed 85 

Faces  of  hammer ;  anvil  block 88 

Pillars,  or  housings;  moving  power;  cam-ring;  shaft;  irre- 
gularities in  speed  ;  waste  of  power;  weight  of  wheel 

and  shaft ;  number  of  wipers 89 

Making  natural  steel;  first  appearance  of  steel  in  the  forge; 
effect  of  boiling  on  the  iron;  making  steel  of  white  or 

No.  2  pig-iron 95 

Use  of  fluxes 99 

Making  steel  from  No.  3  pig-iron 100 

Requisites  for  making  steel 101 

Form  and  dimensions  of  hearth ;  quality  of  bottom  stone  . .    103 

Practical  manipulation 105 

Form  of  a  steel  cake ;  forging  of  the  steel 110 

Expense  of  the  process 112 

German  method  of  making  steel 113 

Making  steel  in  a  puddling  furnace 115 

Refining  of  steel 115 

The  refining  fires ;  fuel 117 


CHAPTER    IV. 

AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  MAKING  STEEL 120 

Blistered  steel ;  amount  of  steel  annually  manufactured  in 

England  ;  construction  of  the  converting  furnace 120 

Chests,  or  Cementing  Boxes 124 

Charging  of  the  Boxes 125 

Cement   ..                 , ,           ,.  126 


CONTENTS 


Working  of  a  converting  furnace  .......................        ' 

Degree  of  cementation  ;  trial  rods;  melting  of  iron  in  the 

box  ............................................   l\ 

Gain  in  weight  ......................................    129 

Tilting....   ..............................  "    13° 

Refining  fires;  blast;  operation  of  wehling  common  ste/sl; 

shear-steel  ......................................    13C 

Tilts;  form  of  hammers  and  tilt-houses  ;  anvils  and  hammer- 


heads 


Cast-steel 


.33 
135 
Making  of  crucibles  in  Sheffield ;  mould  for  that  purpose ; 

weight  of  a  crucible ;  mode  of  drying 136 

Cast-house;  furnaces;  fuel;  time  of  melting;  manipulation; 

flux ;  tongs ;  casting 1< 

The  mould;  quality  of  cast-steel 144 

American  steel 147 


CHAPTER  V. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  MAKING  STEEL 147 

Wootz 147 

German  or  natural  steel ;  difficulty  in  making  it 148 

First  element;  ore  which  is  qualified;  crude  iron  for  steel; 

leading  principles   in   carrying  on  a  blast-furnace   for 

crude  steel-iron 149 

Blistered  steel;  spring-steel  in  Pittsburgh;  saw-blades  of 

Philadelphia 153 

Good  iron  for  conversion;  trial  by  experiment;  by  chemical 

analysis 155 

Making  the  iron  for  conversion 157 

Cement 160 

Dimensions  and  material  of  the  converting  chests;  varieties 

of  slabs  •  management  of  the  chest 169 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

A  new  box,  how  dried 167 

Form  of  iron 167 

Firing  of  the  furnace ;  trial-bars 170 

Closing  the  heat ;  size  and  form  of  the  blisters 172 

Tilting  of  steel 173 

Cast-steel ;    making  it  directly   from   iron   and   lampblack ; 
oxide  of  iron  with  cast-iron,  or  lampblack;  melting  of 

wrought-iron  ;   alloys  of  iron 173 

Alloys  of  steel 176 

Selection  of  converted  bars 176 

Form  of  air-furnaces 178 

Melting  pots 179 

Flux 180 

Tiding  of  steel 183 


CHAPTER   VI. 

NATURE  OF  STEEL 183 

Hardness 183 

Fine  cast-steel ;  shear-steel ;  spring-steel 183 

German  steel ;  effect  of  too  high  or  too  low  heat 184 

Refrigeration  of  steel ;  mediums;  in  mercury,  in  acidulated 

water,  in  solutions  of  salt,  in  oil  and  fat,  in  sand,  cold 

metal,  and  air;  manner  in  which  it  is  performed 186 

Tempering;  shades  of  tempering;  manner  in  which  it 

should  be  performed 188 

Characteristics  of  steel ;  hardness  and  tenacity ;  colour  and 

lustre 191 

Texture 194 

Sound ; 195 

Cohesion 195 

Elasticity 196 

Specific  gravity 197 

2 


xiv  CONTENTS. 

Fusibility 197 

Welding  properties ; If1 

Magnetic  qualities 199 

APPENDIX. 

Hardness  of  alloys 205 

Tenacity,  malleability  and  ductility  of  metals 206 

RECENT  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  STEEL. 

Improvements  in  steel 227 

Various  methods  of  steel  manufacture 228 

Bessemer  process 235 

Martin  process 248 

The  action  of  peroxide  of  manganese  and  of  spiegeleisen 254 

Alloys  of  steel 258 

Steel  ores 263 

Miscellaneous ,..  267 


Young  Americans  Union 

JUDSON1A,  ARK. 
MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FORGING. 

Degrees  of  heat.  —  In  this  chapter,  we  shall  speak 
of  the  various  degrees  of  heat  required  in  the  manu- 
facture of  steel.  They  are  termed,  by  the  black- 
smith, the  black  heat ;  the  red,  or  cherry-red  heat ; 
the  bright  red,  or  bright  cherry-red ;  the  white,  and 
the  welding  heat.  The  first-named  is  the  lowest 
heat ;  it  is  not  visible  in  daylight,  but  shines  in  the 
dark  with  a  brown  colour.  The  second  is,  in  day- 
light, a  blood-red  crimson.  The  third,  a  yellowish 
red,  gives  the  scales,  or  hammer-slag  on  the  iron,  a 
black  appearance.  A  white  he.'it  is  that  at  which 
the  scales  and  iron  appear  to  be  of  the  same  colour ; 
and  the  highest,  or  welding  heat,  is  used  for  welding 
iron.  The  latter  heat  is  very  variable;  for  pure, 
fibrous  iron  sustains  almost  any  degree  of  heat,  so 
long  as  it  is  protected  by  a  slag;  while  cold-short, 

(13) 


14  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

or  impure  iron,  bears  but  a  comparatively  low  heat 
jvithout  being  melted  or  burnt.  That  iron  is  — and 
for  good  reasons  — considered  the  best,  which  bears 
the  highest  heat:  the  value  or  quality  of  iron  vary- 
ing according  to  the  degree  of  heat  it  will  sustain 
without  injury. 

Steel  does  not  bear  the  same  degree  of  heat  as 
iron  without  injury.  The  finest  cast-steel  will  hardly 
sustain  a  bright  red  heat  without  falling  to  pieces ; 
rendering  it  imprudent  to  heat  it  higher  than  a  mid- 
dling, or  cherry-red  heat.  Blistered  steel  will  resist 
a  far  higher  degree  of  heat  than  cast-steel ;  and  good 
shear-steel  will  endure  a  white  heat  without  much 
injury.  Natural  and  German  steel  can  be  heated  to 
the  welding  heat  of  good  iron. 

Although  very  sensitive  to  heat,  steel  will  bear 
much  more  forging  than  iron,  if  not  previously  in- 
jured by  too  great  a  heat.  In  forging  steel,  no 
heavy  tools,  or  at  least  no  heavy  sledge,  should  be 
used ;  a  good-sized  hand-hammer,  with  a  rapid  suc- 
cession of  strokes,  will  be  sufficient.  This  is,  in  fact, 
the  best  method  of  forging  steel. 

Overheating,  either  of  iron  or  steel,  is  injurious, 
and  should  by  all  means  be  avoided ;  the  lowest  heat 
necessary  for  the  work  in  hand,  is  the  most  advan- 
tageous. Steel  or  iron  which  has  been  overheated 


FORGING.  15 

may  sometimes  be  restored  to  utility,  in  a  measure, 
by  forging,  or  drawing.  This,  in  the  case  of  iron, 
often  accomplishes  the  purpose  intended ;  it  will, 
however,  improve  burnt  steel  but  little.  If,  there- 
fore, iron  requires  care  in  heating,  it  is  evident  that 
steel  requires  much  more. 

Forge-fire.  —  The  means  employed  for  heating 
steel  are  the  same  as  those  used  by  the  blacksmith 
for  forging  iron.  The  principles  according  to  which 
a  forge  for  heating  steel  is  to  be  built,  are  those  of 
fast  work  and  a  quick  fire.  In  Fig.  1,  a  common 


Fig  1. 


blacksmith's  forge  is  represented.  The  leather  bel- 
lows are  driven  by  hand,  or,  as  here  shoAvn,  by  the 
foot  and  treadle.  The  bellows  are  double ;  that  is, 
the  whole  is  divided  by  a  horizontal  partition,  which 
separates  it  into  a  working  or  under  part,  and  a  re- 


16  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

gulating  or  upper  part.  By  lowering  the  under  part, 
after  having  been  raised,  the  valve  in  its  bottom  will 
be  forced  open  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  the  lower  compartment  will  fill  with  air.  On 
raising  the  bottom,  the  lower  valve  closes,  and  the 
air  in  the  under  part  is  compressed  and  forced 
through  the  valve  in  the  partition,  whence  the  weight 
of  the  top  drives  it  through  the  tuyere,  or  nozzle. 
The  pressure  may  be  increased  by  putting  weights 
upon  the  top.  The  bellows  may  be  driven  by  ma- 
chinery or  power,  where  such  can  be  procured,  quite 
as  well  as  by  hand ;  but  it  is  better,  in  such  cases,  to 
employ  the  fan-blast,  as  represented  in  Figs.  15  and 
16.  If  the  fan-blast  can  be  obtained,  it  is  prefera- 
ble to  the  common  bellows,  as  it  is  more  uniform, 
and  saves  fuel ;  besides,  its  use  improves  the  quality 
of  the  steel  and  iron. 

The  tuyere,  or  tue  iron,  is  usually  a  simple  block 
of  cast-iron,  as  represented,  of  six  or  eight  inches 
long  and  three  inches  square,  with  a  tapered  bore  of 
one  inch  at  the  smaller,  and  three  inches  at  the  wider 
end.  The  narrow  part,  which  is  directed  into  the 
fire,  can  be  made  narrower  by  placing  an  iron  ring, 
of  more  or  less  thickness,  within  the  aperture.  Tuy- 
eres have  been  contrived  of  various  forms ;  but  pro- 
bably none  will  be  found  superior  to  that  above 


FORGING.  17 

described.  Hot-air  tuyeres  have  been  used,  but  are 
now  generally  abandoned.  The  water  tuyere  (Fig.  4) 
is,  on  account  of  its  durability,  very  valuable ;  but  it 
has  the  disadvantage  of  keeping  the  fire  cold,  which 
is  injurious  to  both  iron  and  steel,  but  particularly 
to  the  latter.  Another  tuyere,  now  coming  very 
much  into  use,  is  the  "  rotary  blacksmith's  tuyere." 
This  appears  to  be  a  very  desirable  addition  to  the 
forge,  as  it  affords  the  facility  of  increasing  the  size 
of  the  aperture,  and  consequently  the  strength  of 
the  blast,  at  any  moment,  even  while  at  work.  Of 
this  tuyere,  (represented  in  Fig.  2,)  E.  Harris,  of 
Springfield,  Mass.,  is  the  patentee.  The  apertures 
are  in  a  rotary,  oblong  ball,  A,  and  Fig  2 

are  of  various  sizes;  so  that  a  larger 
or  smaller  one  may  be  used  by  merely 
turning  the  ball.  The  whole  is  con- 
tained in  a  cast-iron  box,  closed  on 
all  sides.  The  great  advantage  of  this  tuyere  con- 
sists in  the  fact  that  a  small  fire  may  be  converted 
into  a  large  one,  or  vice  versa,  by  merely  turning  the 
hollow  ball  by  means  of  an  axle,  which  projects  at 
one  side  of  the  box. 

The  form  of  the  aperture  of  a  tuyere  is  of  consi- 
derable importance  in  the  working  of  the  fire.  An 
almost  cylindrical  aperture,  such  as  is  represented 


18  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

in  Fig.  3,  throws  the  blast  in  a  compact,  close,  and 
Fig  3  almost  cylindrical  current,  into 

the  fire ;  and  furnishes  the  kind 
of  blast  required  for  welding, 
soldering,  and  small  work,  where 
the  heat  is  to  be  concentrated 
upon   a  particular   point.     By 
the  use  of  this  tuyere,  a  great  saving  in  fuel  is  ef- 
fected.    To  make  a  cylindrical  blast,  the  cylindrical 
part  of  the  aperture  should  be  at  least  as  long  as  the 
diameter  of  the  same  is  wide. 
A  tuyere  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  4  throws  the 
Fig  4  blast  over  a  large  portion  of  the 

fire ;  it  is  useful  for  heating,  but 
unsuitable  for  welding  iron.  The 
nozzle  from  the  bellows,  or  the 
blast-pipe,  is  in  all  cases  fitted 
closely  into  the  tuyere,  and  sur- 
rounded by  clay,  or  some  other  matter.  A  tuyere 
of  the  description  shown  in  Fig.  3  makes  a  small,  but 
intense  heat ;  while  one  of  the  kind  represented  in 
Fig.  4  m«vkes  a  larger  fire,  but  lower  heat. 


FORGING.  19 


FORGE   FOR   HARD   COAL. 

In  working  hard,  or  anthracite  coal,  no  horizontal 
tuyere,  nor  any  of  the  description  above  referred  to, 
can  be  used  to  advantage.  A  small  grate  is  laid 
in  the  bottom  of  the  fire-hearth,  space  being  left 
below  it  for  the  reception  of  ashes  and  clinkers ;  the 
blast  is  then  introduced  under  the  grate.  Such  an 
arrangement  may  be  made  at  any  common  forge-fire ; 
but  a  more  perfect  forge  is  represented  in  Fig.  5. 
This  is  a  brick  hearth,  about  Fig  5 

thirty  inches  high  and  three 
feet  square,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  a  square  pit, 
into  which  the  blast-pipe  is 
conducted.  At  a  distance 
of  six  inches,  or  less,  below 
the  top  of  the  brick-work, 
a  cast-iron  plate  is  inserted, 
in  which  is  a  square  hole  for  the  reception  of  the 
grate.  A  common  stove-grate,  four  or  five  inches 
square,  and  fitting  loosely  into  the  cast-iron  plate,  is 
the  kind  generally  used.  A  small  opening,  below 
the  grate,  leads  into  the  ash-pit,  in  order  to  carry  off 
the  ashes  and  cinders.  On  the  right  and  left  of  the 
fire,  a  wall  of  fire  brick  is  erected,  six  inches  in 


20  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

height,  which  support  an  arch,  also  of  fire-brick. 
This  arch  is  movable,  and  consists  of  an  iron  frame, 
into  which  the  fire-brick  are  firmly  wedged.  In  the 
wall  on  the  right  hand  is  an  opening,  into  which  an 
iron  trough,  in  the  form  of  a  hopper,  is  inserted,  for 
the  purpose  of  heating  the  coal  before  it  is  put  on 
the  fire.  Fresh  hard  coal,  when  thrown  suddenly  on 
a  hot  fire,  is  liable  to  crumble  into  small  pieces ;  the 
heating  prevents  this,  and  keeps  the  fire  open,  and 
free  from  fine  coal.  The  top  of  the  hearth,  or  brick- 
pile,  is  covered  by  an  iron  plate.  A  fire  of  this  kind 
is  very  advantageous  for  common  smith-work ;  but  a 
concentrated  heat  cannot  be  made  in  it. 

The  fire-hearth  represented  in  Fig.  1  is  commonly 
twelve  or  sixteen  inches  wide,  and  six  inches  deep. 
The  tuyere  dips  a  little  into  the  fire.  ^The  hearth  is 
built  of  brick  or  stone,  thirty  inches  high,  atid  is 
covered,  in  whole  or  in  part,  by  an  iron  plate.  At 
the  left  side,  an  iron  trough  for  coal,  anq  a  similar 
one  for  water,  are  usually  inserted.  An /iron  coal- 
trough  is  advantageous  in  working  bituminous,  and 
also  hard  coal.  The  coal  in  the  trough/Is  soaked  in 
water,  which  qualifies  it  for  roaptjng  dr  coking,  and 
affords  the  additional  advantage  of  more  readily  dis- 
engaging the  sulphur  of  the  coal.  /  For  charcoal,  a 
water-trough  only  is  necessary.  F^rge-fires  for  large 

L/ 


FORGING.  21 

work  are  generally  very  low  —  in  some  instances,  but 
a  few  inches  above  the  floor  of  the  workshop.  Over 
the  fire  is  a  light  roof,  or  hood,  of  sheet-iron ;  or, 
over  small  fires,  of  boards.  This  hood  gathers  the 
smoke  and  gases  of  the  fire,  and  conducts  them  to 
the  chimney.  The  chimney  should  not  be  too  small ; 
for  a  great  deal  of  cold  air  draws  into  it  with  the 
smoke,  and  diminishes,  in  proportion,  its  capacity  for 
draught.  The  flues  to  the  stack  are  usually  in  the 
highest  part  of  the  hood ;  but  as  this  arrangement 
frequently  leads  to  smoking,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
either  an  iron  pipe  or  a  brick  channel  leading  from 
the  upper  flue  down  to  the  fire.  The  flue  will  then 
"carry  off  all  the  gas  and  smoke  from  the  fire,  and 
also  that  from  below  the  hood.  This  arrangement  is 
indicated,  in  Fig.  1,  by  dotted  lines. 

Portable  forges  are  of  great  utility  in  ship-build- 
ing, on  railroads,  in  laying  gas  and  water-pipes, 
erecting  steam-engines,  and  in  many  other  branches 
of  industry.  Those  most  in  use  are  called  "  truck- 
forges,"  and  are  generally  mounted  on  two  or  four 
wheels.  These  portable  forges  are  usually  built  en- 
tirely of  cast-iron,  and  are  supplied  with  a  leather 
bellows,  a  vice,  and  a  small  anvil.  They  are  used 
for  sharpening  chisels,  bore-bits,  picks,  blasting  tools, 
stone-drills,  the  heating  of  rivets,  and  similar  work. 


22  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

Such  an  apparatus,  for  small  work,  answers  all  the 
ordinary  requisites  of  a  smith's  forge.  In  fig.  6,  a 
portable  forge  is  represented,  such  as  is  generally  in 
use.  The  cast-iron  fire-hearth  is  mounted  on  a  box, 


Fig  6. 


or  chest.  The  bellows  are  in  the  chest,  and  are  pro- 
tected by  it.  The  tuyere  is  a  concave  disk,  with  six 
or  seven  apertures.  The  chest  may  be  made  of  wood 
or  iron,  and  be  either  mounted  on  wheels,  or  carried 
by  hand.  The  advantage  of  the  treadle  in  the  har- 
dening and  tempering  of  tools  may  readily  be  per- 
ceived, as  it  leaves  both  hands  free  for  operation ; 
and  such  work  is  generally  done  single-handed. 

THE    ANVIL. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  forge-fire,  is  the  anvil 
of  the  smith.  This  is  not  only  of  interest  as  a  tool 
of  the  trade;  but  it  is  also  a  particular  object  of  our 


FORGING.  23 

inquiry,  because  the  steeling  of  the  anvil  is  a  matter 
of  some  importance.  Anvils  for  heavy  work  are 
generally  square  blocks  of  iron,  with  steel  faces.  In 
many  instances,  however,  it  is  merely  a  cast-iron 
block,  with  chilled  face.  The  common  smith's 
anvil  is  represented  in  fig.  7.  It  is  made  entirely  of 
wrought-iron,  and  the  upper  part, 
or  face,  is  covered  with  hardened 
steel.  The  making  of  an  anvil  is 
heavy  work,  as  the  whole  of  it  is 
performed  by  hand.  Anvils  vary 
in  weight  from  one  hundred  to  over 
five  hundred  pounds.  For  their  manufacture,  two 
large  fires  are  required.  The  principal  portion,  or 
core,  of  the  anvil  —  a  square  block  of  iron  —  is 
heated  to  the  welding-heat,  at  a  certain  point  or  cor- 
ner, in  one  of  the  fires ;  and  the  piece  of  iron  which 
is  to  form  a  projecting  end  is  heated  at  another  fire. 
When  the  core  and  corner  have  both  reached  the 
welding-heat,  they  are  brought  together  upon  an 
anvil,  and  joined  by  heavy  swing-hammers.  In  this 
way  the  four  corners  of  the  base  are  welded  to  the 
body,  in  four  heats.  After  this,  the  projection  for 
the  shank-hole,  and  lastly  the  beak,  are  welded  to 
the  core.  The  whole  is  then  brought  into  proper 
shape,  by  paring  and  trimming,  for  the  reception  of 


24  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

the  face.  The  steel  used  for  this  purpose  is,  or  ought 
to  be,  the  hest  kind  of  shear-steel;  blistered  steel  is, 
however,  frequently  substituted.  The  anvil  and  steel 
are  heated  in  separate  fires  until  they  attain  the  pro- 
per temperature;  the  two  sides  which  are  to  be 
welded  are  then  sprinkled  with  calcined  borax,  and 
joined  by  quickly  repeated  blows  of  the  hand-ham- 
mer. The  steel  generally  used  is  half  an  inch  thick ; 
but  if  it  be  only  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
the  difference  is  unimportant,  if  the  steel  be  good. 
Steel  of  an  inferior  quality,  if  too  thick,  is  apt  to 
fly,  or  to  crack  in  hardening. 

The  steeled  anvil  is  next  heated  to  redness,  and 
brought  under  a  fall  of  water,  of  at  least  the  size  of 
its  face,  and  of  three  or  four  feet  head.  After  har- 
dening, it  is  smoothed  upon  a  grindstone,  and  finally 
polished  with  emery.  Small  anvils,  such  as  are  used 
by  silver-smiths,  gold-beaters,  &c.,  are  polished  with 
crocus,  and  have  a  mirror-like  face. 

The  expensiveness  of  wrought-iron  anvils  has  in- 
duced their  manufacture,  for  particular  purposes,  of 
cast-iron.  The  common  anvil,  however,  cannot  be 
made  of  cast-iron ;  for  the  beak  would  not  be  strong 
enough.  None  but  anvils  with  full  square  faces  have 
been  successfully  made  of  cast-iron ;  these  are  either 
simply  chilled  by  casting  the  faces  in  iron  moulds,  or 


FORGING.  25 

the  face  is  plated  with  cast-steel.  Chilled  cast-iron 
anvils  are  not  much  in  use ;  they  are  too  brittle,  and 
the  corners  of  the  face  will  not  stand.  Cast-iron 
anvils  with  cast-steel  faces,  however,  are  a  superior 
article,  and  in  many  respects  preferable  to  wr ought- 
iron  ;  the  face  is  harder  and  stronger,  though  the 
beaks  will  not  last  as  long.  For  purposes  where  a 
good  face  is  essential,  as  for  saw-manufacturers,  cop- 
per a.nd  tin-smiths,  &c.,  the  cast-iron  anvil  with  cast- 
steel  face  will  be  found  to  answer  every  purpose. 

The  anvil  is  generally  set  upon  the  butt  end  of  a 
large  block  of  wood,  oak  being  preferred.  It  is 
placed  loosely  upon  it,  being  secured  merely  by  a 
few  spikes  or  wedges  driven  into  the  wood.  Cutlers, 
file-makers,  and  those  who  manufacture  small  articles 
of  steel,  place  their  anvils  upon  blocks  of  stone,  in 
order  to  make  their  foundation  firm,  prevent  recoil, 
and  give  efficiency  to  light  but  quick  blows  of  the 
hammer.  In  working  soft  metals,  such  as  copper 
and  its  compounds,  a  layer  of  felt  between  the  anvil 
and  the  block  will  be  found  of  advantage. 


MANUFACTURE    OP    STEEL, 


TONGS 

Form  an  important  class  of  tools  in  the  forge. 
There  is  so  great  a  variety  in  their  sizes  and  forms, 
that  a  description  of  the  principal  would  occupy 
more  space  than  we  can  devote  to  them.  Still,  there 
are  hut  a  few  leading  forms,  the  varieties  of  which 
arise  either  from  fancy,  or  from  the  peculiar  nature 
of  certain  work.  The  common  or  flat-bit  tongs  are 
represented  in  fig.  8,  A ;  they  are  of  various  sizes, 
from  one  foot  to  five  feet  long,  and  from  a  half  to  ten 
pounds  in  weight.  The  fire-end  is  made  more  or  less 
open,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  articles  to  he 

Fig.  8. 


held  with  it.  The  bits,  or  lips,  vary  in  width,  and 
are  often  hollow,  so  as  to  fasten  with  more  certainty 
to  round  iron  and  fagots.  An  oval  ring,  or  coupler, 
is  put  upon  the  handles,  or  shank,  to  hold  the  tongs 
firmly  to  the  work.  Next  in  general  utility  to  the 
flat-bit  tongs,  are  the  pincer-tongs,  represented  in 


FORGING.  27 

fig.  8,  B.  The  swelling  on  the  lips,  or  fire-end,  is  an 
advantageous  arrangement,  particularly  where  short 
pieces  of  round  or  square  iron  are  to  be  forged.  To 
this  class  of  tongs  belongs  also  that  form  in  -which 
the  bits  are  round,  as  in  the  nail-tongs.  Another 
useful  variety  is  the  crook-bit,  shown  in  fig.  9 ;  it 


Fig-  9. 


serves  particularly  for  small  work  in  steel,  because 
the  rod  may  pass  the  nail.  There  are,  besides  these 
forms,  basket-tongs,  hoop-tongs,  pliers,  pincers,  and 
numerous  others. 


HAMMERS. 

An  item  not  less  important  in  a  smithy  than  tongs, 
are  chisels,  fig.  10,  A ;  punches,  B ;  swages,  C ;  to 
which  a  bottom  tool  belongs,  which  is  cut  with  its 
square  tail,  or  shank,  in  the  .anvil.  D,  fig.  10,  is  a 
representation  of  anvil  chisels.  The  above  tools  are 
either  fitted  to  a  handle  which  passes  through  the 


28 


MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


Fig.  10. 


eye,  as  in  A  and  B,  fig.  10 ;  or, 
as  in  heavy  work,  the  handle 
consists  of  a  twisted  hazel-rod, 
wound  around  the  tool,  C.  These 
tools  are  all  faced  with  steel, 
and  are,  in  fact,  cheaper  if  made 
entirely  of  that  metal.  Natural 
steel  is  preferable  for  this  pur- 
pose to  any  other.  Tongs  made 
of  spring-steel  are  certainly 
more  expensive  at  first,  hut  are  less  costly  in  the  end, 
than  those  of  iron.  Tools  should  never  be  heated 
red-hot,  nor  even  allowed  to  become  visibly  hot ;  and 
if  it  should  be  necessary  to  bring  tools  in  contact 
with  heated  iron,  they  should  be  repeatedly  cooled, 
to  prevent  injury. 

Tools  which  may  be  made  of  iron,  but  which  are 
better  of  steel,  or  at  least 
faced  with  steel,  are   the 
set-hammer,    fig.    11,    A; 
and  the  heading-tool.    The 
latter  may  be  a  single  tool, 
as  in  fig.  11,  B ;  or  a  tool 
with  many  holes,  C. 
Besides  the  tools  we  have  named,  an  almost  end- 
less variety  is  required  in  a  blacksmith's  shop,  parti- 


Fig,  n. 


F  0  R  G  I  N  a  .  29 

cularly  where  machine-work  is  forged.  Forges  for 
the  manufacture  of  hardware,  or  where  steel  is  prin- 
cipally worked,  are  generally  limited  to  a  certain 
kind  of  tools,  which  have  been  found  by  experience 
to  be  the  best  adapted  to  the  purpose.  Thus,  in  the 
axe-factory,  hammer-tongs  are  requisite  —  an  instru- 
ment which  is  rarely  found  in  any  other  establish- 
ment. 

Before  leaving  the  consideration  of  forge-tools,  we 
may  make  some  additional  remarks  on  the  subject  of 
hammers.     The  forms  of  this  article  are  innumera- 
ble, each  individual  following  the  bent  of  his  own 
fancy  in  constructing  them.     Undoubtedly,  for  cer- 
tain occupations,  a  peculiar  form  is  requisite ;  but 
there  is  no  necessity  for  the  endless  variety  of  fan- 
ciful shapes  the  instrument  is  made  to  assume.     The 
common  hammer  is  shown 
in  fig.  12;  A,  the  eye  or 
handle,    being     somewhat 
nearer  to  the  pane,  or  nar- 
row   edge,    than    to    the 
head.     The  pane  is  a  little 
rounded,    as    is    also    the 
head ;   both   are  of  steel, 
and  hardened.     The  weight  of  the  common  hand- 
hammer  of  this  form  is  from,  one  to  two  pounds ;  of 


30  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

,  the  ordinary  smith's  sledge  (fig.  12),  from  five  to 
eight  pounds.  A  heavy  sledge  weighs  twelve  or  fif- 
teen pounds,  and  a  swing-sledge  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  pounds.  Some  hammers  have  two  flat  heads, 
with  the  handle  near  one  end ;  others  have  spherical, 
or  egg-shaped  heads ;  and  others  again  have  two  flat 
panes  set  diagonally  against  the  handle :  these  last 
are  used  in  saw  and  hardware  factories.  Cutlers, 
and  edged-tool  makers  generally,  prefer  the  hammer 
with  the  handle  at  one  end,  or  near  the  top,  as  in 
fig.  12,  B. 

FUEL. 

The  fuel  used  in  forging  steel  is  chiefly  bituminous 
coal,  which  is  preferable  to  any  other.  Where  soft 
mineral  coal  cannot  be  obtained,  charcoal  is  substi- 
tuted. Anthracite  is  unfit  for  the  purpose.  A  close 
fire  is  necessary,  where  the  oxygen  of  the  blast  is 
consumed,  or  converted  into  carbonic  acid,  or  carbo- 
nic oxide.  Open  fires,  like  those  of  charcoal  and 
anthracite,  are  not  well  adapted  for  heating  steel, 
because  a  great  deal  of  air  passes  through  them  un- 
burnt,  which,  in  passing  over  the  hot  steel,  deprives 
it,  to  some  extent,  of  its  carbon.  Charcoal  and  an- 
thracite fires  require  a  roof  or  arch  of  fire-brick,  as 
Bhown  in  fig.  5.  in  order  to  secure  the  proper  com- 


FORGING.  31 

tion  of  the  air.  In  a  fire  of  bituminous  coal,  the 
roof  may  easily  be  formed  of  the  coal  itself.  When 
damp,  slack  coal  is  thrown  on  the  fire,  in  a  layer  of 
two  or  three  inches  thick,  it  will  cake  together,  and, 
after  the  loose  coal  below  it  is  burnt  out,  form  a  hol- 
low fire  like  a  bakeoven ;  the  coke  roof  reflecting  an 
immense  heat  upon  the  maferial  below  it.  By  no 
other  means  can  a  fire  be  made  to  possess  so  intense 
a  heat  as  by  the  method  we  have  described.  In 
heating  steel,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  purity  of  the  coal,  and  to  its  freedom  from  sul- 
phur. Fine  coal,  wet,  is  less  injurious  to  steel  than 
coarse  dry  coal  of  the  same  quality. 

FLUX. 

Sand  or  other  material,  sprinkled  upon  iron  when 
near  the  welding  heat,  serves  to  form  a  flux,  or  fluid 
glass,  with  the  iron.  This  flux  surrounds  the  hot 
iron  or  steel,  and  protects  it  against  the  impurities 
of  the  fuel,  removing,  at  the  saprfe  time,  the  coating 
of  dry  scales  from  the  heate4  metals,  and  greatly 
facilitating  the  operation  of.  welding. 

For  welding  steel  to/  steel^  ^and  steel  to  iron,  we 
have  a  variety  of  degrees  of  h Jat  to  deal  with ;  and 
the  flux  which  serves  to  protect  good  iron,  is  insuffi- 


82  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

cient  to  protect  cast-steel — just  as,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  flux  which  fits  cast-steel  for  welding,  would 
be  useless  on  iron.  Impure  wrought-iron  will  form 
a  slag  of  its  own  material ;  while  good  iron  is  pro- 
tected,, as  we  have  intimated  above,  by  sprinkling 
fine  sand  over  it ;  but  this  method  will  not  answer 
with  steel,  or  where  steel  and  iron  are  to  be  welded. 
The  material  used  as  a  flux  is  to  be  applied  shortly 
before  the  metal  reaches  the  welding-heat,  no  matter 
how  high  or  low  that  heat  may  be ;  it  will  melt  on 
the  surface  of  the  hot  iron  or  steel,  and  last  long 
enough  to  be  brought  to  the  anvil  for  welding.  The 
slag  flows  off,  or  is  forced  out,  in  bringing  the  two 
surfaces  together,  and  pressing  them  into  close  con- 
tact. If  steel  or  iron  is  heated  in  contact  with  air, 
it  burns,  and  forms  a  film  of  infusible  magnetic  oxide, 
which  is  remarkably  refractory  on  steel.  If  two  sur- 
faces are  brought  together  which  are  partially  co- 
vered with  such  infusible  oxide,  the  metals  cannot 
come  fairly  into  contact,  and  of  course  the  welding 
is  imperfect ;  it  cannot  be  sound.  After  the  flux  is 
strewn  on  the  iron,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  the  metal 
constantly  in  the  fire,  otherwise  the  flux  will  flow  to 
the  lowest  parts,  and  finally  be  lost.  A  better  me- 
thod than  that  of  sprinkling  the  sand  on  the  hot  iron 
is  to  roll  the  metal  in  the  powdered  flux,  thus  saving 


FORGING.  33 

the   latter,  and   keeping  the  fire   more   free   from 
clinkers. 

For  welding  iron,  clean  river-sand,  or  powdered 
sandstone,  makes  a  good  flux  ;  but  it  does  not  answer 
for  welding  steel,  or  steel  and  iron.  For  this  pur- 
pose, borax  is  generally  used.  The  common  borax 
in  crystals,  as  it  is  sold  in  the  drug-stores,  is  com- 
posed of  nearly  one-half  water.  On  heating  these 
crystals  in  an  iron  pot,  they  dissolve  into  a  clear 
liquid ;  on  further  heating,  the  water  is  evaporated, 
and  the  residuum  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  spongy 
mass ;  and  by  the  continued  application  of  heat,  this 
mass  is  converted  into  a  clear  glass.  This  glass  is 
therefore  calcined  borax;  it  is  entirely  free  from 
water,  and  not  very  liable  to  absorb  it.  It  should  be 
prepared  and  powdered  in  advance,  and  always  be  on 
hand  for  use.  Borax,  thus  prepared,  is  sufficient  in 
almost  all  cases ;  still,  some  workers  in  steel  prefer 
a  mixture  of  two  parts  borax  with  one  of  sal-ammo- 
nia, or  three  parts  of  the  former  with  one  of  the  lat- 
ter article.  This  compound  is  preferable  for  welding 
iron  and  steel.  Borax  alone  is  rather  too  fluid  for 
iron,  where  it  is  to  be  welded  to  steel ;  a  more  effi- 
cient flux  for  this  purpose  is  well-dried  and  finely 
powdered  white  potters'  clay  —  not  common  loam  — 
which  has  been  moistened  with  salt  water,  or  brine. 


34  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

This  clay  makes  a  very  fine  flux  and  clean  surface,  to 
which  steel  readily  adheres.  There  seems  to  be  no 
apparent  necessity  for  mixing  sal-ammonia  with  bo- 
rax in  welding  steel.  It  certainly  makes  a  more 
fusible  slag ;  but  the  chlorine  of  the  ammonia,  which 
combines  with  the  slag  —  the  ammonium  being  driven 
off —  has  a  tendency  to  drive  off  the  carbon  from  the 
Bteel,  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  it,  and  convert 
such  steel  into  iron.  This  conversion  of  the  surface 
into  iron  does  not  facilitate  welding,  and  leaves  a 
vein  of  damask  at  the  point  of  junction. 

If  pure  borax  is  too  refractory,  as  is  the  case  with 
some  of  the  best  kinds  of  cast-steel,  an  excellent  flux 
may  be  produced  by  melting  potash,  or  pearlash, 
together  with  pure  dried  clay,  three  parts  of  the  for- 
mer and  one  of  the  latter,  in  an  iron  pot ;  adding  to 
the  fluid  mass,  gradually,  an  equal  weight  of  calcined 
borax.  This  flux  should  be  finely  powdered,  and 
used  like  the  borax ;  it  melts  at  a  dark-brown  heat, 
vitrifies  the  iron  slag  perfectly,  and  is  not  injurious 
to  the  steel.  This  metal  rapidly  deteriorates  in 
quality  if  the  atmosphere  has  access  to  it  while  hot ; 
a  suitable  flux,  therefore,  which  protects  it,  and  at 
the  same  time  purifies  the  surface,  is  all-important. 


FORGING.  35 


WELDING 

Is  that  operation  by  which  two  pieces  of  iron  or 
steel,  or  steel  and  iron,  are  heated,  brought  together, 
and  intimately  and  permanently  united  under  press- 
ure, or,  as  is  more  generally  the  case,  under  repeated 
blows  of  the  hammer ;  the  junction  being  impercept- 
ible. As  the  welding-heat  of  different  materials 
greatly  varies,  it  requires,  in  many  instances,  a  skil- 
ful and  dexterous  workman  to  perform  the  operation 
successfully.  The  blacksmith  is  to  watch  the  heat 
on  the  two  pieces  minutely,  and,  if  they  both  have 
their  proper  heat  and  flux,  he  pulls  them  out  of  the 
fire,  and  quickly  unites  them.  If  the  pieces  are 
separate,  or 'united  but  imperfectly,  the  smith  incor- 
porates both  by  his  right  hand  and  hammer ;  and  if 
the  work  is  heavy,  a  second  hand,  or  helper,  assists 
in  striking  with  a  more  or  less  heavy  hammer.  To 
weld  natural  steel,  or  natural  steel  and  iron,  is  not 
difficult ;  for  it  will  bear  almost  as  much  heat  as  iron. 
Still,  it  should  be  kept  off  of  the  tuyere,  and  in  the 
dark  heat  of  the  fire.  If  a  small  piece  of  steel  is  to 
be  welded  to  a  larger  piece  of  iron,  it  is  heated  to  a 
cherry-red,  and  the  iron  to  a  white  heat,  when  they 
are  temporarily  united.  The  pieces,  thus  united,  are 
4 


Fig.  13. 


86  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

next  exposed  to  a  white  heat,  and  sprinkled  with  bo- 
rax, (or,  if  German  steel,  with  clay,)  when  the  tem- 
perature is  increased  to  a  welding  heat.  If  the  steel 
is  to  be  laid  on  a  pick,  crowbar,  or  any  similar  in- 
strument, it  is  drawn  into  that  form,  or  a  triangular 
bit,  in  which  it  is  to  be  welded  to  the  iron,  as  shown 
in  fig.  13,  A.  Here  the 
steel  forms  the  tongue  to 
a  split  joint,  and  the  weld- 
ing is  performed  at  the 
same  heat,  and  in  the  same 
fire.  In  a  similar  manner, 
chisels,  hammers,  panes, 
hatchets,  axes,  &c.,  are 
steeled.  If  shear-steel  is  to  be  welded  in  this  way  to 
iron,  more  attention  and  experience  is  requisite  than 
for  the  welding  of  natural  steel;  and  the  iron  is 
drawn  out  to  a  greater  length,  so  as  to  overlap  and 
cover  the  steel  more  perfectly.  Cast-steel  requires 
still  more  caution,  because  it  sustains  still  less  heat ; 
and  the  iron  must  either  overlap  the  steel  entirely, 
and  afterwards  be  cut  or  ground  off;  or  the  steel  and 
iron  should  be  heated  in  separate  fires,  in  which  case 
the  butt-joint  or  scarf  is  preferable. 

In  many  instances,  the  edge  which  is  to  be  steeled 
is  made  at  first  narrower  than  it  is  intended  to  be 


FORGING.  37 

when  finished,  and  is  afterwards  drawn  out  when 
the  welding  has  been  completed.  This  method  is 
adopted  in  the  making  of  an  axe.  In  fig.  13,  B,  is 
a  representation  of  this  process.  The  first  operation 
is  to  bend  a  flat  bar  of  iron,  nearly  as  broad  as  the 
iron  around  the  eye,  and  a  little  thicker.  The  eye 
is  temporarily  formed  around  a  mandril,  and  the  iron 
welded  in  the  line  A  B,  leaving  two  tails  for  the 
edges.  The  eye  is  then  nearly  perfected,  using  the 
mandril  from  both  sides,  so  as  to  make  it  narrower  in 
the  middle  than  at  the  ends,  which  aids  in  securing 
the  axe  more  firmly  to  the 'handle,  and  prevents  its 
flying  off,  or  slipping  backward  and  forward.  The 
head  or  poll  of  the  axe  is  then  laid  on  with  steel  of 
an  inferior  kind,  and  a  slip  of  shear  or  cast-steel  is 
laid  between  the  two  tails  which  are  to  form  the  edge. 
All  three  are  then  welded  together,  and  drawn  out, 
so  as  to  form  the  broad  side  of  the  axe,  which  is  now 
trimmed  or  pared  with  chisels,  and  hammered  at  a 
low  heat  to  smooth  it ;  after  which  it  is  hardened, 
ground,  and  polished. 

Where  the  iron  and  steel  are  very  thin,  as  in  steel- 
ing shovels,  the  steel  is  laid  between  two  thicknesses, 
and  the  whole  welded  and  drawn  out  together. 

The  butt-joint  is  used  in  welding  a  piece  of  steel 
to  a  flat  surface,  such  as  the  face  of  an  anvil,  or  the 


38  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

head  of  a  hammer.  In  such  cases,  the  piece  of  steel 
is  forged  to  its  proper  shape  before  it  is  cut  off  from 
the  bar,  and  fastened  to  the  iron  by  notches,  or  by 
the  drawn-up  corners  of  the  hammer-mould.  It  is  then 
cut  from  the  bar,  and  is  ready  to  be  welded.  A  more 
perfect  method  is  to  cut  both  surfaces  coarsely  with 
a  rasp-like  chisel,  and  fasten  them  together  with  a 
strap  of  wire ;  this  makes  a  better  weld,  particularly 
where  the  steel  will  not  bear  strong  heat.  Still  an- 
other method  is  to  nail  the  steel  to  the  iron,  as  shown 
in  fig.  13,  C.  A  pin  or  spike  is  made  of  the  steel  by 
drawing  it  out  in  a  thick  round  form,  with  a  head  as 
large  and  thick  as  is  necessary  to  form  the  face. 
A  corresponding  hole  is  made  in  the  iron  mould,  and 
the  steel  firmly  spiked  to  it.  The  pieces,  in  this  way 
temporarily  united;  are  welded  in  one  heat. 

Where  large  objects  are  to  be  faced  with  steel, 
such  as  anvils,  beak-irons,  and  the  like,  two  fires  are 
required,  that  the  iron  and  steel  may  be  heated  sepa- 
rately. If  this  cannot  be  conveniently  done,  tho 
iron  is  first  heated  to  a  brisk  white  heat,  and  the  cold 
steel  is  placed  behind  it,  with  a  view  of  shielding  it 
from  the  direct  action  of  the  fire.  When  the  steel 
has  in  this  way  attained  the  welding-heat,  the  iron  is 
ready,  and  the  two  may  be  united.  When  iron  and 
steel  are  put  at  the  same  time  into  the  fire,  in  a  cold 


FORGING.  39 

state,  the  steel  will  be  burned  and  spoiled  before  the 
iron  is  ready.  Steel  is  so  easily  injured  by  heat, 
that  the  greatest  care  is  requisite  in  exposing  it  to 
the  action  of  fire.  One  of  the  most  difficult  opera- 
tions in  steel,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  liability  to 
injury,  is  the  making  of  wire  draw-plates.  The  pro- 
cess is  most  successfully  performed  by  the  French 
manufacturers.  In  this  country  and  England,  wire 
draw-plates  are  made  by  welding  a  plate  of  shear- 
steel  to  a  plate  of  iron.  In  France  and  Germany, 
draw-plates  are  made  by  forming  a  crucible  of  the 
iron  plate  in  drawing  up  the  edges.  In  the  cavity 
thus  formed,  hardened  fragments  of  crude  steel, 
white  plate-iron,  cast-steel,  or  the  hardest  natural 
steel,  are  driven  in.  The  whole  is  then  heated  to 
the  melting  point  of  steel,  and  suffered  to  cool  slowly. 
This  melted  steel  forms  a  uniformly  sound  coating 
upon  the  iron.  The  face  of  the  iron,  before  the  steel 
is  driven  in,  is  well  cleaned  with  a  file,  and  of  course 
a  flux  of  borax  applied. 

Flat  edged  tools,  which  are  covered  with  a  thin 
plate  of  steel  on  one  side,  such  as  carpenters'  chisels, 
plane-irons,  adzes,  and  instruments  which  require 
tenacity  as  well  as  hardness,  are  made  by  taking 
steel  and  iron,  of  a  greater  thickness  than  they  are 
intended  to  be  when  finished,  and  drawing  them  out 


40  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

together,  after  welding,  to  the  requisite  dimensions. 
In  a  cast-steel  factory,  such  chisels  may  be  made  by 
polishing  the  iron  on  that  side  where  it  is  to  be  laid 
with  steel,  and,  subjecting  it  to  a  gentle  heat,  the 
steel  and  iron  may  be  firmly  united  by  casting  the 
former  upon  the  latter.  Both  metals  are  here  also  to 
be  drawn  out  together. 

The  scarf-joint  is  but  little  used  for  welding  iron 
and  steel.  If  a  rod  of  steel  is  to  be  welded  to  iron, 
as  in  stone-drills  and  similar  tools,  a  cleft,  or  the 
split-joint,  is  preferred.  The  steel  rod  is  then  point- 
ed or  drawn  out  into  a  chisel,  and  the  iron  rod  cleft 
to  receive  it. 


BLISTERED    STEEL. 

In  the  blacksmith's  shop,  blistered  steel  is  more 
used  than  any  other  description.  It  certainly  costs 
less  at  first,  and  is  to  some  extent  improved  by  forg- 
ing, or  welding  it  to  iron ;  but  when  its  inferior  qua- 
lity is  considered,  and  the  labour  necessarily  expend- 
ed on  many  tools  of  common  use,  such  as  pick-axes 
and  mattocks,  it  is  evident  that  the  difference  in  the 
cost  of  the  steel  will  effect  but  a  slight  reduction  in 
the  price  of  the  tool ;  while  its  real  value  may  be 


FORGINQ.  41 

much  enhanced  by  the  use  of  a  superior  quality  of 
steel. 

The  price  of  common  blistered  steel  is  about  five 
cents  per  pound ;  and  of  good  shear  or  cast-steel, 
sixteen  cents.  Now,  as  a  pick  scarcely  requires  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  steel,  it  is  evident  that  the 
difference  in  the  expense  is  not  quite  three  cents. 
Cast  and  shear-steel  are  both  made  of  blistered  steel ; 
but  the  blistered  steel  commonly  sold  will  not  make 
good  shear,  and  is  certainly  unfit  for  cast,  steel. 
Good  blistered  steel — by  which  we  mean  steel  made 
from  good  iron  —  cannot  be  sold  at  five  cents  per 
pound.  Even  if  made  of  common  charcoal  bar-iron, 
it  can  scarcely  be  sold  at  that  price.  Swedish  com- 
mon bar-iron  commands  almost  as  high  a  price  as 
our  ordinary  blistered  steel.  Good  cast-steel  is  made 
of  a  superior  quality  of  Swedish  iron,  which  costs 
nine  cents  a  pound.  Forging  and  hammering  by  a 
low  heat  will  improve  steel  remarkably;  but  this 
improvement  is  scarcely  perceptible,  so  far  as  tena- 
city is  concerned. 


42  MANUFACTURE     OF     STEEL. 


SHEAR-STEEL. 

The  most  suitable  steel  for  welding  with  iron,  is 
the  shear,  or  double  shear-steel ;  it  will  stand  the  fire 
better  than  cast  steel,  and,  if  of  good  quality,  is  but 
slightly  inferior  to  it  in  hardness.  The  variation  in 
quality  is,  however,  very  considerable,  and  great  care 
is  necessary  in  its  manufacture.  Edge-tools  of  a 
superior  description  are  manufactured  from  shear- 
steel  ;  which,  if  good,  possesses  the  requisites  of  dur- 
ability and  tenacity. 


CAST-STEEL. 

In  the  manufacture  of  articles  composed  of  steel 
and  iron,  cast-steel  is  but  seldom  used ;  yet,  there  is 
a  description  of  cast-steel  made  expressly  for  welding 
purposes,  denominated  welding  cast-steel.  It  is  fre- 
quently used  in  the  manufacture  of  axes ;  and  some 
of  the  best  now  in  use  are  made  of  this  steel.  It 
does  not,  however,  although  superior  to  shear-steel, 
assume  the  delicate  edge  and  hardness  of  the  best 
cast-steel.  Very  hard  and  fine  varieties  of  cast-steel 
are  but  seldom,  and  then  with  extreme  difficulty, 
welded  to  iron.  In  the  manufacture  of  tools  requir- 


FORGING.  48 

ing  the  use  of  cast-steel,  such  as  cold-chisels,  boring- . 
bits,  and  tools  for  the  turning  and  planing  of  metal, 
solid  bars  of  cast-steel  are  employed ;  this  being,  in 
many  respects,  the  most  economical  method. 

WELDING    STEEL. 

There  is  no  difficulty  experienced  in  welding  to- 
gether two  pieces  of  either  the  natural,  German, 
blister,  or  shear-steel ;  but,  with  cast-steel,  the  case  is 
somewhat  different.  The  first  varieties  of  steel  may 
be  either  welded  one  to  the  other,  or  two  pieces  of 
the  same  kind  be  welded  together,  in  the  usual  way ; 
the  only  requisites  being,  a  good  forge,  and  the  use 
of  a  flux  of  dry,  pure  clay.  Steel  of  an  inferior 
quality,  may,  by  the  use  of  a  gentle  heat,  be  drawn 
into  small  rods ;  then  fagotted,  welded,  and  made  into 
bars  of  any  required  weight  and  size.  Good  bitu- 
minous coal  is  almost  indispensable  for  this  purpose : 
forge-hammers  are  not  necessary,  the  common  sledge- 
hammer being  sufficiently  effective. 

Two  pieces  of  cast-steel  can  be  welded  together,  if 
proper  care  be  used  in  the  performance  of  the  opera- 
tion. When  two  bars  are  to  be  welded  lengthwise, 
they  should  be  so  tapered  as  to  form  a  scarf-joint,  and 
the  scales  on  the  tapered  faces  of  the  bars  removed 
by  the  use  of  a  file ;  the  faces  of  the  bars  may  then 


44  MANUFACTURE     OF    STEEL. 

be  roughened  like  a  rasp,  and  covered  with  a  paste, 
of  borax-glass,  or  calcined  borax ;  after  which  the 
bars  may  be  finally  bound  together  by  iron  wire.  In 
this  condition  the  weld  may  be  exposed  to  the  action 
of  a  fire  which  is  nearly  at  a  welding  heat,  and  con- 
tains a  sufficient  quantity  of  ignited  coal,  to  render 
the  use  of  a  blast  almost  unnecessary.  When  the 
steel  has  been  softened  to  such  an  extent,  that  an  im- 
pression can  be  made  on  its  surface  by  an  iron  poker, 
and  the  borax  has  become  perfectly  fluid,  the  bars 
may  be  cautiously  removed  from  the  fire  to  an  anvil, 
previously  heated,  and  there  hammered  gently  with 
a  small  hand-hammer.  The  iron  wires,  being  at  each 
end  of  the  scarf,  may  be  removed  after  the  first  heat. 
If  the  first  heat  does  not  prove  sufficient,  it  may  be 
again  applied,  with  the  same  precautions.  Small 
rods  of  steel  undergo  a  similar  process  in  welding, 
with  the  exception,  that  but  little  pains  is  taken  to 
roughen  the  connecting  faces  of  the  rods ;  they  are 
merely  filed,  before  being  joined  together,  and  the 
powdered  borax  applied  to  the  joint  when  the  rods 
are  sufficiently  hot  to  melt  it. 

The  East  Indians  weld  their  wootz,  by  a  process 
similar  to  that  just  described.  They  taper  their  rods, 
file  and  roughen  them,  then  bind  them  together  with 
wire,  and  apply  the  borax  when  they  are  hot. 


FORGING.  45 

A  subject  of  some  interest,  and  certainly  of  great 
importance,  is  the  welding  of  steel  to  cast-iron. 
This  may  readily  be  effected  if  the  steel  be  clean,  a 
little  heated,  and  protected  by  a  flux  of  calcined  bo- 
rax. The  cast-iron,  of  course,  is  to  be  very  hot,  if 
the  objects  are  small ;  or  the  steel  is  to  be  heated  to 
a  high  degree.  The  chief  difficulty  in  this  operation 
consists  in  the  hardening  of  the  steel  so  welded  to 
the  cast-iron ;  for,  in  chilling  the  hot  steel  and  iron 
together,  the  latter  will  either  become  brittle,  and 
crack,  or  cause  the  steel  to  fly.  If  strong  and  pure 
grey  cast-iron  be  used,  this  is  not  so  apt  to  occur. 
Perhaps  the  best  iron  for  this  purpose  is  the  Pitts- 
burgh dark-grey  charcoal  pig.  The  best  kind  of 
cast-steel  is  that  which  hardens  by  the  lowest  heat. 
If  grey,  strong  cast-iron  is  not  overheated,  it  loses, 
on  cooling,  but  little  of  its  strength,  and  is  not  very 
subject  to  hardening.  Cast-iron  is  similar,  in  this 
respect,  to  steel.  A  good  tempering  of  the  cast-iron, 
after  hardening,  as  steel  is  tempered,  will  restore,  in 
a  gr?at  measure,  its  lost  tenacity. 


46  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


TEST    OF    THE    QUALITY    OF    STEEL. 

The  indications  by  which  we  distinguish  good  from 
bad  steel  are  difficult  to  describe.  Blistered  steel, 
when  the  blisters  are  uniform  in  size,  may  generally 
be  considered  as  of  the  best  quality.  Where  there 
are  but  few  blisters,  and  those  of  an  irregular  size, 
we  should  pronounce  the  steel  of  an  inferior  descrip- 
tion. Natural  steel,  German  steel,  and  shear  and 
cast-steel,  are  always  bad  if  single  sparkling  crystals 
show  themselves  in  a  fresh  fracture.  Generally 
speaking,  any  sparkling  steel  is  bad;  it  is  merely 
hard,  impure  iron.  Good  hardened  steel,  on  frac- 
ture, presents  a  dead  silvery  appearance,  and  is  of  a 
uniformly  white  colour ;  in  soft  shear-steel,  the  frac- 
ture has  a  bluish  tint ;  and  in  soft  cast-steel,  it  is  of 
a  greyish  hue.  In  German  and  natural  steel,  thr 
fracture  has  a  soft  bright  grey  tint,  often  inclined  to 
fracture  in  the  centre  of  the  bar. 


THE    HARDENING    OF    STEEL 

Is  an  operation  which  requires  the  exercise  of 
some  judgment.  The  usual  method  is  to  heat  the 
steel  to  a  certain  point,  and  then  plunge  it  suddenly 


FOEGING.  47 

into  cold  water,  tempering  it  afterwards.  This  method 
is  undoubtedly  the  correct  one ;  but  the  degree  of 
heat  to  which  steel  is  to  be  exposed  before  cooling,  is 
a  matter  of  vast  importance.  Some  steel  —  the  na- 
tural, for  instance — will  bear  a  strong  white  heat, 
and  a  plunge  into  cold  water,  before  it  assumes  its 
greatest  hardness.  Other  steel,  particularly  fine 
cast-steel,  will  not  bear  more  than  a  brown  or  cherry- 
red  heat ;  beyond  that  point  it  burns,  and  becomes 
brittle  in  hardening.  It  may  safely  be  concluded, 
that  steel  which  does  not  bear  heat  in  forging,  will 
not  bear  it  in  hardening.  The  heat  at  which  steel 
falls  to  pieces,  or  melts,  is  too  high  for  hardening, 
as  steel  hardened  in  such  heat  will  fly  or  crack.  The 
alterations  manifest  in  steel  after  hardening,  as  com- 
pared with  annealed  steel,  are  the  following: — Its 
volume  is  a  little  increased ;  the  black  scales  which 
adhere  to  its  surface  fly  off,  and  the  surface  appears 
clean,  and  of  the  colour  and  lustre  of  iron ;  the  frac- 
ture is  brighter,  and  crystals  are  visible.  Good  steel, 
as  we  have  said  before,  is  silver-white,  and  is  so  hard 
that  it  will  scratch  pane-glass,  and  even  a  file.  The 
cohesion,  relative  and  absolute,  is  increased  if  the 
heat  has  not  been  too  high  before  cooling.  These 
are  the  chief  characteristics  of  good  steel,  when 
hardened. 
5 


48  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

The  phenomenon  of  hardening  by  sudden  cooling 
is  not  peculiar  to  steel ;  it  belongs  to  all  the  alloys 
of  metals,  but  is  perhaps  more  characteristic  of  iron. 
There  is  not  a  bar  of  puddled  iron  in  market  which 
does  not  show  all  the  phenomena  of  hardening  and 
tempering  as  clearly  as  they  are  perceived  in  steel. 
Most  of  the  charcoal  wrought-iron,  particularly  the 
hot-blast,  shows  the  same  phenomena.  There  is  no 
difference  in  kind,  but  in  degree. 

None  but  the  best  and  purest  charcoal  wrought- 
iron  is  uninjured  after  cooling.  It  is  a  true  test  of  the 
quality  of  pure  fibrous  iron,  if  a  bar,  heated  to  the 
welding-heat,  and  suddenly  plunged  in  cold  water, 
does  not  harden  or  become  brittle.  Most  of  the  bar- 
iron,  on  subjection  to  such  a  process,  becomes  as 
brittle  as  glass,  and  presents  the  appearance  of  an 
accumulation  of  crystals,  without  apparent  connec- 
tion. Such  iron  may  be  made  more  fibrous  and 
strong  by  being  fagoted,  welded,  and  drawn. 

The  assertion  of  some  writers  and  artisans  that 
any  iron  which  hardens  by  cooling  is  to  be  consider- 
ed steel,  is  unfounded  in  reality;  for  every  variety 
of  iron  in  the  market  has  this  property.  It  is  the 
tenacity  and  fine  grain,  or  rather  absence  of  grain, 
which  distinguishes  hardened  steel  from  hardened 
iron  Bar-iron,  hardened,  does  not  derive  much 


FORGING.  49 

strength  from  tempering ;  while  steel,  on  the  other 
hand,  does  so  to  a  high  degree. 

While  it  is  true  that  bar  and  wrought-iron  are  very 
sensitive  to  the  process  of  cooling,  it  is  so  in  a  far 
higher  degree  with  cast-iron.  This  description  of 
metal,  if  suddenly  chilled,  becomes,  in  most  cases,  so 
highly  excited  as  to  crack,  or  fly.  The  hardest  cast- 
iron,  if  pure,  may  be  converted  into  malleable  iron, 
almost  equal  to  wrought,  by  judicious  tempering. 
Such  tempered  cast-iron,  however,  cannot  be  welded ; 
it  becomes  brittle  again  if  heated,  and  cooled  in  the 
air.  Slow  tempering,  however,  will  restore  such  re- 
hardened  cast-iron  to  its  malleable  condition.  The' 
best  and  purest  varieties  of  cast-iron  become  so  ex- 
cessively hard  on  refrigeration,  that  the  finest  cast- 
steel,  in  its  -hardest  condition,  can  be  scratched  by 
it ;  but  this  hardened  cast-iron  is  very  brittle  in  its 
smallest  particles,  and  flies  to  pieces  when  in  large 
masses. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  any  distinguishing  mark 
between  steel,  wrought-iron,  and  cast-iron.  A  che- 
mical test  is  even  inadmissible.  As  a  general  fea- 
ture, however,  we  may  say,  that  cast-iron  cannot  be 
forged  or  welded,  or  at  least  very  imperfectly ;  that 
wrought-iron  feels  softer  under  the  hammer  than  steel, 
in  forging ;  and  that  both  impure  wrought  and  cast- 


50  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

iron  become  very  brittle  in  hardening.  The  united 
hardness  and  tenacity  of  steel  are  its  characteristics. 
Good  cast-steel,  or  any  other  variety,  if  not  freshly 
annealed  or  hardened,  and  if  free  from  fissures,  will 
emit  a  sonorous  silvery  tone  when  a  suspended  bar  is 
struck.  Iron,  particularly  if  good,  emits  a  dull, 
leaden  sound ;  while  cast-iron  gives  out  a  tone  like 
that  of  a  cracked  instrument. 

Steel  is  superior  to  wrought  or  cast-iron  in  all  the 
characteristic  qualities  of  that  metal;  it  is  stronger, 
tougher,  harder,  and  more  elastic  than  either  cast  or 
wrought-iron :  indeed,  it  is  iron  in  its  highest  per- 
fection. 

TEST    OF    STEEL. 

The  surest  test  of  the  quality  of  steel  is  to  draw 
a  rod  into  a  tapered  point,  harden  it  by  a  gentle 
heat,  and  break  off  pieces  from  the  point.  The  de- 
gree of  resistance  to  the  hammer,  which  of  course 
should  be  a  very  small  one,  is  the  test  of  the  value 
of  the  steel.  The  best  steel  is  that  which,  under 
this  treatment,  is  found  to  be  the  toughest  and 
strongest. 


FORGING.  51 


THE    EXPANSION 

Of  hardened  steel  is  frequently  the  cause  of  great 
inconvenience  to  the  workman.  Steel  welded  to  iron 
invariably  draws  the  edge  around,  if  it  should  he  on 
but  one  side  of  the  edge.'  It  is  also  liable  to  become 
brittle  when  laid  upon  iron.  These  difficulties  may 
be  obviated  by  making  the  steel  side  convex,  or  tak- 
ing as  little  iron  as  possible.  Files  are  never  straight 
if  made  of  natural  steel,  because  that  is  in  most 
cases  but  a  mixture  of  iron  and  steel.  In  all  cases 
where  exactness  after  hardening  is  essential,  the  best 
kind  of  cast-steel  is  to  be  used ;  neither  blistered  nor 
shear-steel  can  be  trusted.  The  better  the  steel,  the 
greater  is  its  expansion  in  hardening.  This  expan- 
sion is  in  some  measure  reduced  in  tempering  the 
steel,  but  not  to  the  size  in  which  it  was  received 
from  the  tilt.  The  expansion  is  greater  where  the 
steel  has  been  heated  to  a  high  degree  before  refrige- 
ration, which  may  in  some  measure  account  for  the 
brittleness  of  the  metal  when  overheated.  It  is  an 
important  matter,  in  working  steel,  to  keep  it  moving 
in  the  fire ;  otherwise,  on  that  side  where  the  blast 
acts,  it  will  lose  its  carbon,  and  will  not  shrink  so 
much  in  hardening  as  those  portions  which  have  been 


52  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

protected.  A  good  method  of  protecting  steel  is  to 
keep  a  film  of  calcined  borax,  or  any  other  flux, 
around  it  while  in  the  fire,  or  to  cover  it  with  a  paste, 
as  is  done  in  hardening  files  and  mint-stamps. 


KEFEIOEE  ATINQ  FLUIDS. 

In  hardening  steel,  the  hardness  is  derived,  not  so 
much  from  the  degree  of  heat  to  which  the  metal  is 
subjected,  as  the  degree  of  cold  of  the  cooling  fluid, 
and  the  manner  in  which  the  cooling  is  performed. 
Steel  must  be  heated  to  a  certain  degree,  to  assume 
its  greatest  hardness ;  if  heated  below  that  point,  it 
will  not  become  hard,  no  matter  what  kind  of  cooling 
fluid  we  employ,  or  in  what  manner  we  refrigerate. 
If  the  proper  degree  of  heat  be  obtained,  it  is  in 
our  power  to  make  the  steel  more  or  less  hard,  by 
choosing  more  or  less  cold  water,  or  other  fluid,  for 
chilling  it.  Many  plans  of  refrigeration,  and  many 
refrigerating  fluids,  have  been  advised  for  hardening ; 
but  the  most  of  them  are  of  no  practical  utility. 
Pure  well-water,  taken  fresh  from  the  well,  is  the 
best  element  to  cool  in ;  and  it  should  be  renewed  at 
each  operation.  Well-water  is  everywhere,  and  at 
almost  all  seasons,  of  the  same  temperature ;  and 
the  smith  shoul  1  use  this  for  hardening  the  steel,  to 


FORGING.  53 

ensure  success.  Hard  well  or  spring-water  is  prefer- 
able to  that  of  a  softer  quality,  and  should,  if  possi- 
ble, be  obtained.  Steel  treated  in  this  way  assumes 
its  greatest  degree  of  hardness,  and  may  afterwards 
be  tempered  to  any  extent. 

The  manner  of  cooling  is  of  some  importance.  If 
hot  steel  is  held  quietly  in  cold  water,  it  will  not  be- 
come as  hard  as  may  be  desirable,  because  the  steam 
formed  on  the  hot  surface  will  prevent  its  rapid  cool- 
ing. A  motion  backward  and  forward,  or  up  and 
down  in  the  water,  greatly  increases  the  hardness. 
For  hardening  large  objects,  a  current  or  fall  of 
water  is  indispensable. 

The  different  degrees  of  heat  required  for  harden- 
ing steel,  accordingly  as  that  steel  is  of  good  quality, 
or  has  been  more  or  less  worked,  or  is  welded  to  iron, 
or  is  in  large  or  small  pieces,  makes  it  exceedingly 
difficult,  and  indeed  practically  impossible,  to  employ 
hardening  and  tempering  fluids  at  the  same  time. 
The  surest  method  is  to  impart  to  the  steel,  in  the 
operation  of  hardening,  the  greatest  degree  of  hard- 
ness of  which  it  is  susceptible,  and  temper  it  after- 
wards. 


64  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL, 


HARDENING    FILES. 

This  process  is  one  which  has  been  brought  to  a 
high  degree  of  perfection,  and  the  experience  gained 
in  it  has  been  advantageously  applied  in  other 
branches  of  manufacture.  A  file,  after  being  cut,  is 
dipped  in  a  fluid  of  a  cream-like  consistence.  This 
fluid  is  composed  of  a  saturated  solution  of  common 
salt  in  water,  thickened  by  flour  or  meal  of  peas  or 
beans.  This  paste  melts  into  a  fluid  slag,  and  sur- 
rounds the  file,  protecting  it  against  the  influence  of 
the  fire  and  air.  The  file  is  uniformly  heated  in  a 
common  smith's  forge,  or  in  a  small  reverberatory 
furnace,  and  plunged  vertically  (except  half-round 
and  fancy  files,  which  have  a  more  or  less  horizontal 
inclination)  into  cold  spring-water.  Saw-files,  and 
sculptors'  files  which  are  of  iron,  are  hardened  by 
using  animal-charcoal  powder  with  the  flour  paste, 
or  using  it  and  salt  water  only.  Coal  for  this  pur- 
pose is  made  by  putting  leather,  tanners'  scraps,  or 
horns  and  hoofs,  in  a  tight  iron  pot,  and  exposing  the 
whole  to  a  cherry-red  heat.  The  spongy,  black,  and 
shining  coal  is  then  to  be  finely  ground  for  use. 

Rubbing  a  hot  file,  or  any  piece  of  hot  steel,  with 
a  piece  of  charred  leather,  hoof,  or  horn,  is  not  of 


FORGING.  55 

much  use ;  the  glassy  coating  imparted  by  the  salt  is 
requisite  to  success.  After  files  are  hardened,  they 
are  hrushed  over  with  water  and  powdered  charcoal, 
by  which  they  become  perfectly  clear  and  metallic. 
After  washing  them  repeatedly  in  fresh  water  to  ex- 
tract the  salt,  they  are  dipped  in  lime-water,  dried 
by  the  fire,  and  finally,  while  still  warm,  placed  in  a 
mixture  of  olive  oil  and  turpentine. 


HARDENING    OF    NEEDLES,    ETC. 

These  are  hardened  in  quantities  of  twenty-five 
pounds,  which  are  heated  together,  and  plunged  in 
cold  water,  but  so  that  almost  each  needle  is  sepa- 
rated from  its  fellow.  Cutlery,  such  as  knife-blades 
and  similar  articles,  are  held  by  the  tangs,  either  in 
pairs  or  singly,  heated  to  a  cherry-red  in  the  common 
forge,  and  plunged  into  cold  water  up  to  the  tang. 
Sunk  steel  dies  and  mint-stamps  are  heated  to  the 
proper  degree,  and  hardened  under  a  current  of  fresh 
cold  water,  which  is  made  to  issue  from  a  basin  with 
great  rapidity. 


56  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL, 


THE    MAKING    OF    STEEL    DIES 

For  stamping  coins  or  medals,  for  impressing  bank- 
note plates,  and  copper  cylinders  for  calico  printing, 
is  an  art  of  much  importance.  It  requires  consider- 
able skill,  time  and  expense,  to  make  such  dies ;  all 
of  which  may  be  lost  by  imperfect  material,  or  mis- 
management in  hardening  or  tempering.  The  first 
requisite  to  success  is  the  selection  of  the  steel. 
Cast-steel  is  in  all  cases  the  best ;  and  it  should  be 
cast-steel  which  has  been  manufactured  at  a  low 
heat,  well-cemented,  and  made  of  the  best  materials. 
All  steel,  without  an  exception,  contains  veins  of  un- 
equal hardness.  Natural  steel  is  the  worst  in  this 
respect;  blistered  and  shear  are  not  much  better; 
and  even  the  best  cast-steel  is  not  exempt  from  this 
characteristic.  These  veins  are  generally  the  cause 
of  cracks.  The  steel,  before  it  is  selected  for  these 
operations,  is  carefully  washed  over  with  dilute  nitric 
acid,  or  aquafortis,  which  causes  the  damask  veins  or 
spots  to  appear  at  the  surface.  Steel  for  dies  should 
be  entirely  free  of  such  veins,  and  more  particularly 
of  cracks  and  ash-holes ;  for  detecting  which  latter, 
a  lens  is  required. 

In  cautiously  and  slowly  tempering  steel,  the  hard 


FORGING.  57 

veins  and  spots  may  be  concealed,  especially  if  it  has 
been  tempered  in  charcoal ;  but  they  will  appear 
again  in  heating  and  forging  the  steel.  These  veins 
are  less  apparent  in  hardened  steel,  and  would,  in 
fact,  be  of  but  little  consequence  to  the  engraver, 
were  it  not  for  their  greater  liability  to  crack  and  fly 
than  uniformly  grained  steel.  Very  much  depends 
upon  the  die-sinker;  he  can  spoil  the  best  steel 
by  faulty  work  ;  that  is,  by  overheating,  or  heating 
too  often.  Steel  generally,  and  particularly  this 
kind  of  steel,  ought  to  be  forged  by  the  lowest  pos- 
sible heat  —  as  little  as  it  can  be  done  with,  and  no 
more.  After  the  steel  has  been  selected  and  forged 
into  rolls,  or  dies  of  the  desired  form,  it  is  annealed. 
The  common  way  of  annealing  is  to  imbed  the  steel 
in  coarse  charcoal  powder,  in  a  crucible  or  iron  pot, 
heat  it  to  a  cherry-red  heat,  and  let  the  fire  slowly 
go  out,  while  the  steel  is  in  it.  Animal  coal  is  fre- 
quently substituted  for  charcoal,  or  mixed  with  it ; 
but  one  is  as  good  as  the  other :  the  time  which  the 
steel  remains  in  the  fire  is  generally  too  short  for  the 
mixture  to  act  upon  it.  This  annealing  is  of  the  ut- 
most consequence  in  the  subsequent  engraving  ope- 
ration, and  also  in  hardening,  and  ought  to  be 
extended  to  the  proper  period ;  six,  or  even  twelve 
hours,  are  not  sufficient  to  anneal  steel  to  perfection. 


58  MANUFACTUKE    OF    STEEL. 

A  low  heat  for  twenty-four  hours,  or  even  twice  that 
time,  is  not  too  much. 

When  dies  are  engraved,  they  are  next  hardened ; 
but  as  the  face  of  the  engraving  is  to  be  faithfully 
preserved,  it  is  protected  by  being  covered  over  with 
a  mixture  of  lamp-black  and  linseed  oil.  The  whole 
is  then  imbedded  in  charcoal  powder,  in  a  pot,  as  in 
annealing,  and  finally  plunged  into  cold  spring-water, 
where  it  is  rapidly  moved  about ;  or  it  may  be  cooled 
under  a  current  of  water. 

As  such  dies  will  not  safely  bear  twice  hardening, 
the  heat  by  which  that  particular  kind  of  steel  as- 
sumes its  greatest  hardness  is  to  be  ascertained  by 
experiments  upon  a  piece  cut  from  the  bar ;  the  die 
is  then  subjected  to  that  heat.  Dies  and  heavy 
bodies  of  steel  are  naturally  exposed  to  cracks  in 
hardening,  resulting  from  its  expansion.  The  inte- 
rior of  a  body  of  steel  cannot  shrink  as  much  as  the 
exterior,  because  it  is  protected  by  the  surface  steel. 
Nor  can  the  hardening  be  of  the  same  degree  in  the 
interior  as  at  the  surface. 

For  the  reasons  we  have  given,  we  may  conclude 
that  all  round  bodies  of  steel  are  more  or  less 
fractured  at  the  periphery;  and  experience,  under 
all  circumstances,  will  prove  the  correctness  of  this 
conclusion. 


FORGING.  59 

To  prevent  breakage  as  the  result  of  these  cracks, 
Bteel  is  to  be  tempered  as  soon  as  possible  after  har- 
dening, taking  care  that  no  impurities  of  any  kind 
are  in  the  water,  which  might  fill  the  invisible  cre- 
vices. Round  bodies,  such  as  dies  and  similar  arti- 
cles, may  be  tempered  by  fitting  a  wrought-iron  ring 
around  them,  first  heating  the  ring  to  redness,  and 
inserting  the  die  or  other  object  in  it ;  the  ring,  in 
cooling,  will  firmly  compress  the  die,  and  secure  it 
against  subsequent  flying.  When  tKe  die  thus  in- 
serted receives  its  proper  temper,  which  is  indicated 
by  the  colour,  it  is  thrown  into  cold  water,  or  water 
of  60°  or  80°,  and  cooled.  After  tempering,  the  die 
is  boiled  in  water  for  some  hours,  and  suffered  to  cool 
slowly  in  the  water.  This  process  increases  its  tena- 
city considerably,  and  makes  the  hardening  and 
strain  more  uniform  throughout  the  body  of  the 
steel. 

The  liability  of  dies  and  other  engraved  steel  in- 
struments to  break  in  hardening,  or  oftentimes  hours 
after  hardening,  is  rather  a  seriou^  matter;  for  it 
may  cause  great  loss  to  an  artist.  '  Every  kind  of 
steel  is  not  liable  to  shrinkage,  and  consequently  less 
liable  to  breaking.  Steel  containing  much  carbon  is 
more  liable  to  crack  than  where  it  is  of  a  less  carbon- 
iferous quality.  The  practice  of  imbedding  steel  in 


60  MANUFACTURE     OF    STEEL. 

animal  or  wood-charcoal,  is  therefore  not  judicious 
when  steel  is  saturated  with  carbon,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  not-welding  cast-steel.  Steel  with  hard  and 
soft  spots  or  veins  is  also  more  liable  to  breakage 
than  uniform  steel.  The  latter  steel  generally  con- 
tains less  carbon  than  other  steel  of  the  same  hard- 
ness ;  slow  tempering  in  hard  charcoal  will  make  it 
more  uniform,  and  be  a  guard  against  cracks.  Crude 
German  steel  does  not  shrink,  and,  if  moderately 
heated  and  hardened,  will  not  crack ;  but  if  heated 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  acquire  its  full  degree  of 
hardness,  it  becomes  very  brittle.  The  steel  made 
of  this  crude  material  shrinks  and  cracks,  though  not 
so  much  as  cast-steel ;  still,  it  never  assumes  that 
uniform  hardness  and  tenacity  which  characterize  the 
last-named  variety. 

A  number  of  plans  have  been  devised  to  avert  the 
danger  of  breaking  dies,  matrices  and  die-rollers,  in 
hardening  them  ;  but  there  is  nothing  better  or  more 
safe  than  slow  and  careful  annealing,  gentle  heat  in 
hardening,  clear  hard  spring-water,  and  time  and  pa- 
tience in  tempering.  The  roller-dies  for  bank-note 
plates,  and  copper  calico-printing  rollers  —  an  inven- 
tion of  the  late  Jacob  Perkins,  of  Massachusetts  — 
are  hardened  in  this  simple  manner,  the  often  very 
delicate  engraving  being  protected  by  a  chalk  paste, 


FORGING.  61 

which  admirably  answers  the  purpose.  Other  means 
of  protection,  such  as  plunging  the  heated  steel  in 
oil,  hot  or  cold,  or  in  melted  lead,  or  a  composition 
of  metals,  are  uncertain  in  their  results,  and  liable 
to  failure ;  because,  even  if  the  oil,  metals  and  heat 
are  always  the  same,  the  steel  is  not — one  kind  of 
steel,  or  a  particular  kind  of  work,  acquiring  more 
hardness  by  the  same  treatment  than  another. 


HARDENING    BY    COMPRESSION. 

Among  the  various  methods  of  hardening  is  that 
»n  spring-water,  the  most  simple  and  most  safe ;  but 
there  are  some  small  articles  to  which  we  cannot  give 
their  highest  degree  of  hardness  and  tenacity  in  this 
way.  These  are  engravers'  tools,  surgical  instru- 
ments, &c.,  which  may  be  hardened  to  a  high  degree 
by  being  hammered  with  a  very  small  hammer,  well 
polished,  on  a  hard,  polished  anvil.  Delicate  instru- 
ments assume  by  this  practice  a  high  degree  of  hard- 
ness, and  a  finer  edge  and  more  elasticity  than  can 
be  given  to  them  by  any  other  mode  of  hardening. 
The  conical  holes  in  the  wire  draw-plate  are  hardened 
in  the  same  way. 


MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL. 


ANNEALING. 

Of  steel  is  a  necessary  operation  in  all  cases  where 
filing  or  engraving  is  to  be  done.  The  steel,  as  it 
comes  from  the  anvil,  is  too  hard  for  the  file  and  the 
chisel,  and  must  be  softened  or  annealed  before  it  is 
ready  for  the  engraver.  The  common  method  of  an- 
nealing is  to  heat  the  steel  to  a  gentle  redness  off  the 
tuyere,  and  leave  it  in  the  ashes  of  the  hearth  until 
cold.  The  slower  this  operation  is  performed,  the 
more  uniform  and  soft  will  the  steel  be.  Tempering 
in  a  pot,  imbedded  in  sand  or  chalk,  or  any  dry  pow- 
der, is  preferable  to  the  open  fire.  Some  authorities 
recommend  pastes  and  powders  of  various  composi- 
tions for  annealing ;  but  all  such  preparations  are 
fallacious.  Nothing  more  is  requisite  than  heat,  and 
the  exclusion  of  atmospheric  air  or  oxygen. 


TEMPERING. 

Steel  properly  hardened,  is  as  hard  as  its  peculiar 
quality  permits  it  to  become.  In  this  state  it  is  ge- 
nerally ton  brittle  to  be  of  any  practical  use,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  temper  it  before  it  is  exposed  to  any 
strain  on  its  tenacity.  Small  tools  are  generally 


FORGING.  63 

tempered  after  hardening,  by  covering  the  surface 
with  a  film  of  tallow  or  oil,  then  heating  the  steel 
until  the  oil  diffuses  a  hlack  smoke,  or  burns,  or 
ceases  to  burn,  and  then  plunging  it  in  cold  water. 
Picks,  mattocks,  blasting  tools,  and  similar  imple- 
ments, are  tempered  by  heating  the  heavy  part  from 
behind  the  edge  or  point,  driving  the  heat  towards 
the  point.  One  side  of  the  edge  being  ground  white, 
shows  the  tempering  colours ;  and  when  the  proper 
colour  is  arrived  at,  the  steel  is  cooled  just  at  the 
point,  but  not  the  heavy  iron  behind  it.  Many  me- 
chanics harden  and  temper  their  common  tools  in  the 
same  heat,  by  merely  dipping  the  hot  point  or  edge 
in  cold  water;-  the  heat  of  the  heavier  parts  is  then 
transmitted  to  the  hardened  edge,  after  it  is  removed 
from  the  cold  water.  When  the  proper  colour  is 
gained,  which  is  ascertained  by  scratches  of  a  dull 
file,  the  tool  is  cooled  by  dipping  it  in  water.  This 
latter  process  requires  some  experience,  or  the  steel 
is  apt  to  become  either  too  hard  or  too  soft,  and 
require  renewed  hardening;  which,  of  course,  is 
injurious  to  the  steel. 

Instruments  which  are  designed  to  be  very  perfect, 
are  polished  all  over,  and  then  heated  to  the  temper- 
ing colour.  Small  articles,  such  as  knife-blades,  are 
set  in  large  numbers  with  their  tangs  in  a  heavy  steel 


64  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

or  iron  plate ;  that  plate  is  then  heated,  and,  when 
the  proper  colour  is  on  the  blades,  each  is  singly 
plunged  into  cold  water.  Needles  are  tempered  in 
masses,  by  burning  oil  upon  them.  Saw-blades,  and 
large  articles  generally,  are  tempered  in  hot  sand ; 
the  sand  being  heated  to  a  certain  point,  which  is 
tested  by  the  thermometer.  Sometimes  this  precau- 
tion is  not  taken ;  and  the  course  then  is  to  watch 
the  articles  until  they  obtain  the  requisite  colour, 
when  they  are  hardened  in  either  air  or  water. 

The  colours  to  which  steel  can  be  tempered  may 
be  approximately  stated  thus :  The  hardest  articles, 
which  do  not  require  much  strength,  should  assume 
a  faint  yellow ;  surgical  instruments,  razors,  and  en- 
gravers' tools,  a  pale  straw-colour ;  knives,  cold  chi- 
sels, and  bore-bits,  yellow ;  chisels,  shears,  hammers, 
anvils,  and  some  varieties  of  saw-blades,  dark  yel- 
low; axes,  plane-irons,  carpenters'  tools  generally, 
and  most  edged  tools,  brownish  purple  ;  table-knives, 
weapons,  and  scissors,  purple ;  watch-springs,  saws, 
and  augers,  light  blue ;  common  saws,  heavy  watch- 
springs,  carriage-springs,  and  springs  generally, 
blue ;  articles  which  require  strength,  but  in  which 
hardness  is  a  secondary  consideration,  dark  blue. 
Beyond  dark  blue  the  colour  is  black,  and  the  steel 
is  perfectly  soft. 


FORGING.  65 

These  colours  are  only  approximating  the  sub- 
ject ;  for  the  various  kinds  of  steel  will  show  a  dif- 
ferent degree  of  hardness  in  being  tempered  to  the 
same  colour.  The  naturally  soft  steel  should  have 
a  shade  or  two  less  temper  than  that  of  the  hardest 
description. 

Many  propositions  have  been  made  by  scientific 
men  to  harden  steel  in  fusible  metal  compositions,  to 
avoid  tempering ;  or  to  temper  the  steel  in  such 
metals ;  or  to  temper  in  a  bath  of  lead  heated  to  a 
certain  degree,  measured  by  the  thermometer,  &c. 
All  these  things  are  very  well  as  scientific  recom- 
mendations, and  we  shall  speak  of  them  in  another 
place.  They  are  of  little  practical  value,  however ; 
for  it  is  not  the  absolute  degree  of  heat  in  harden- 
ing, or  the  difference  in  heat  and  cold,  or  the  degree 
of  the  tempering  bath,  which  decides  the  superiority 
or  inferiority  of  hardened  instruments  of  steel.  The 
quality  and  description  of  the  steel,  the  manner  and 
mode  of  working  it,  the  form  and  the  fuel,  are  mat- 
ters which  influence  the  degree  of  heat  in  hardening, 
and  also  in  tempering.  In  all  cases  of  this  kind,  the 
simplest  way  of  working  is  the  best ;  the  skill  and 
dexterity  of  the  worker  in  steel  is  a  better  guarantee 
of  success  than  all  the  artificial  compositions  of  cool- 
ing and  tempering  mediums.  A  good,  skilful  work- 


66  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

man  knows  by  the  bearing  of  his  steel  under  the 
hammer  what  degree  of  heat  is  most  suitable  for  the 
kind  of  steel  under  his  management,  and  will  harden 
and  temper  according  to  his  own  convictions. 


DAMASCUS    STEE-L. 

To  imitate  or  make  Damascus  steel  in  the  forge  by 
welding  together  steel  and  iron  which  has  been  bound 
in  fagots,  or  any  other  form  composed  of  thin  rods, 
is  an  experiment  generally  attended  with  but  ill  suc- 
cess. The  quality  of  steel,  as  we  shall  explain  here- 
after, depends  so  much  upon  the  quality  of  the  ore 
and  iron  from  which  it  is  made,  as  not  to  offer  any 
hope  of  success  in  the  attempt  to  make  good  steel  in 
the  forge.  Damascus  gun-barrels  are  made  by  weld- 
ing strips  of  iron  and  steel  together ;  but  in  harden- 
ing such  compositions,  the  advantages  are  small  in 
respect  to  tenacity,  and  the  loss  is  considerable  in 
hardness. 

Gun-barrels,  which  are  of  course  not  hardened, 
are  certainly  superior  when  made  in  this  way  to  those 
forged  in  any  other  manner ;  but  this  is  not  the  case 
with  edged  instruments.  A  kind  of  Damascus  steel 
for  weapons  is  still  imitated  by  some  French  cutlers ; 


67 

but  it  is  so  expensive  a  process,  and  the  blades  are 
so  slightly,  if  at  all,  superior  to  those  of  the  ordinary 
manufacture,  that  this  is  more  of  a  curiosity  than  any- 
thing else. 

CASE-HARDENING 

Is  that  process  by  which  the  surface  of  iron  is 
converted  into  steel.  This  is  a  very  useful  art,  and 
deserves  to  be  more  cultivated  than  it  is  at  present. 
In  this  process,  the  surface  of  iron  may  be  made 
harder  than  the  hardest  steel,  and  still  retain  all  its 
malleability.  Steel,  when  hardened,  is  brittle,  and 
tools  or  keys  of  steel  are  liable  to  break.  If  case- 
hardened,  however,  they  combine  all  the  advantages 
of  steel  and  iron. 

The  articles  to  be  case-hardened  are  to  be  well 
polished ;  and  if  the  iron  is  not  quite  sound,  or  shows 
ash-holes,  it  is  hammered  over  and  polished  again  — 
the  finer  the  polish,  the  better.  The  articles  are 
then  imbedded  in  coarse  charcoal  powder,  in  a 
wrought-iron  box,  or  pipe,  which  should  be  air-tight. 
A  pipe  is  preferable  to  a  box,  because  it  can  be 
turned,  and  the  heat  applied  to  it  more  uniformly. 
The  whole  is  then  exposed  for  twenty-four  hours  to 
a  gentle  cherry-red  heat,  in  the  flue  of  a  steam-boiler. 


68  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

or  in  some  other  place  where  the  heat  is  uniformly 
kept  up.  This  makes  a  very  hard  surface,  and,  on 
large  objects,  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  depth  may 
be  thus  obtained.  If  so  much  time  cannot  be  given 
to  the  operation,  and  no  deep  hardening  is  required, 
the  articles  are  imbedded  in  animal  charcoal,  or  in  a 
mixture  of  animal  and  wood  coal ;  four  or  five  hours' 
heat  will  make  a  good  surface  of  steel.  If  a  single 
article,  a  small  key,  or  any  other  tool,  is  to  be  hard- 
ened, the  coal  must  be  finely  pulverized,  and  mixed 
into  a  paste  with  a  saturated  solution  of  salt ;  with 
this  paste  the  iron  is  well  covered  and  dried.  Over 
the  paste  is  laid  a  coating  of  clay,  moistened  with 
salt  water,  which  is  also  gently  dried.  The  whole  is 
now  exposed  to  a  gradually  increased  heat,  up  to  a 
bright  red,  but  not  beyond  it.  This  will  give  a  fine 
surface  to  small  objects.  In  all  cases,  the  article  is 
plunged  in  cold  water  when  heated  the  proper  time, 
and  up  to  the  proper  degree. 

A  quick  mode  of  case-hardening  small  objects  is 
that  by  prussiate  of  potash.  The  iron  is  well  pol- 
ished, and  heated  to  a  dark-red  heat ;  it  is  then 
rolled  in  a  box  containing  powder  of  the  yellow  prus- 
siate of  potash,  or  sf  rinkled  with  it ;  the  powder  will 
melt  on  the  surface,  and  the  iron  is  then  heated  to  a 
bright-red,  and  plunged  in  cold  water.  The  powder 


FORGING.  69 

of  the  prussiate  is  obtained  by  exposing  the  crystals 
to  a  gentle  heat  in  an  open  iron  box,  or  pot,  for  the 
purpose  of  evaporating  the  water  contained  in  them ; 
the  remainder  is  a  white  powder.  Some  persons 
recommend  the  mixing  of  one-third  camphor  with  the 
prussiate.  As  the  camphor  melts  at  a  lower  heat 
than  the  prussiate,  and  causes  it  also  to  melt,  the 
whole  operation  can  be  performed  at  a  lower  heat, 
which  is  certainly  an  improvement.  Calcined  borax 
has  also  been  proposed  to  be  mixed  with  the  prussiate ; 
but  we  do  not  know  with  what  effect  it  operates.  To 
mix  prussiate  in  clay,  as  recommended  by  some,  is 
not  of  much  use,  as  it  requires  too  much  labour  to 
put  the  clay  around  the  article ;  in  these  cases,  the 
above  recipe  of  coal,  salt  and  clay,  is  all-sufficient. 

In  the  operation  of  case-hardening  there  is  not  the 
slightest  difficulty;  any  degree  of  hardness  may  be 
given,  and  almost  any  depth.  The  addition  of  salt, 
bone-ashes  or  bone-black,  animal  charcoal,  hoof,  horn 
or  leather,  to  the  charcoal  powder,  will  regulate  the 
degree  of  hardness ;  and  the  time  of  its  exposure  to 
the  action  of  heat  must  be  governed  by  the  depth  of 
steel  required. 

While  the  performance  of  the  operation  is  simple, 
it  is  not  so  easy  to  select  the  proper  kind  of  iron. 
If  the  iron  is  of  coarse  fibre,  the  hardened  and  pol- 


70  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

ished  surface  will  be  unsound ;  if  it  is  impure,  it  will 
be  brittle  after  being  hardened.  The  surest  way  is 
to  select  a  very  fine,  close-grained  iron,  heat  a  piece 
of  it  a  little  beyond  the  heat  by  which  it  is  to  be 
hardened,  and  plunge  it  into  cold  water.  If  it  re- 
tains its  fibre  and  malleability,  and  is  free  from  ash- 
hole*,  it  may  be  selected  as  fit  for  the  purpose. 

Edges,  however  hard  they  may  be,  are  never  good 
if  made  of  case-hardened  iron ;  it  is  not  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  materials,  nor  of  the  process,  to  produce 
such  a  result. 

The  most  expeditious  method  of  case-hardening  is 
to  imbed  the  article  in  borings  of  grey  cast-iron,  in 
a  cheet-iron  box,  which  may  be  open  at  the  top,  and 
covered  with  fine  dry  sand.  These  borings  are  a  better 
conductor  of  heat  than  charcoal,  and  the  article  is 
therefore  very  soon  covered  with  a  coating  of  steel. 
A  very  little  salt  may  be  added  to  the  borings ;  or  a 
mixture  of  borings,  charcoal,  bone-coal,  animal  coal, 
scraps  of  horn,  hides,  leather,  and  other  materials 
of  the  kind,  may  be  used  to  advantage. 


VARIETIES    OF    STEEL.  71 


CHAPTER   II. 

VARIETIES    OP    STEEL. 

AMONG  the  numerous  kinds  of  steel,  we  recog- 
nize but  few  which  are  at  present  current.  These 
are  blistered  steel,  shear-steel,  cast-steel,  and  Ger- 
man steel ;  the  other  varieties  are  simply  modifi- 
cations of  these.  The  first  is  almost  the  only  quality 
at  present  manufactured  in  the  United  States;  a 
small  portion  of  cast-steel  is  made,  but  so  small  as 
to  be  scarcely 'worth  mentioning.  About  eight  thou- 
sand tons  of  iron  are  annually  converted  into  steel, 
in  this  country ;  of  which  about  five  hundred  tons  are 
melted  into  cast-steel,  and  the  rest  is  principally  used 
as  blistered  steel  for  springs  and  saws,  and  consumed 
by  the  manufacturers  themselves.  German  steel 
also  was  formerly  manufactured,  particularly  in  New 
Jersey  and  some  parts  of  Pennsylvania ;  but  we  are 
not  aware  that  this  ij  now  the  case.  Little  of  tho 
American  steel  is  brought  into  market. 

There  are  some  kinds  of  steel  which  have  but  an 
7 


72  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

historic  interest  for  us— such  as  the  Asiatic  Damas 
cus  steel,  Indian  wootz,  and  similar  varieties— which, 
as  belonging  to  the  manufacture,  and  therefore  de- 
serving of  notice,  we  shall  mention  in  subsequent 
pages.  Such  steel,  however,  is  not  found  in  our 
market  as  merchandise. 


WOOTZ. 

The  most  ancient  steel  historically  known  appears 
to  be  the  Indian  cast-steel,  or  "Wootz."  The  ancient 
Egyptians  imported  steel  from  Asia  and  Bombay, 
via  Persia  —  the  great  high  roads  of  the  Indian  trade. 
At  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  India  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  when  the  Greeks  made  their  weapons  of 
bronze,  wootz  was  manufactured  in  India.  English 
travellers  in  modern  times  have  been  very  inquisitive 
as  to  the  mode  of  manufacturing  wootz  among  the 
Asiatics,  and  also  as  to  the  material  from  which  it  is 
made.  They  have  succeeded  very  well ;  but  the 
operation  is  of  such  a  nature,  that  we  cannot  derive 
much  practical  benefit  from  it. 

Wootz  is  made  of  magnetic  iron  ore,  such  as  wo 
have  in  great  abundance  in  the  States  of  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  This  ore,  which  is 
naturally  mixed  with  quartz,  and  which  appears  to 


w  o  o  T  z .  73 

be  very  impure  —  for  nearly  half  of  it  is  quartz — is 
finely  pulverized,  and  the  impurities  winnowed  away. 
The  fine  ore  is  then  moistened  with  water  and  formed 
into  cakes,  to  prevent  its  running  down  through  the 
hot  coal  in  the  smelting  furnace.  The  furnace  is  of 
the  form  of  one  of  our  cupolas,  about  four  feet  high, 
and  two  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  by  one  at  the  top. 
The  furnace  is  charged  with  charcoal,  and  thoroughly 
heated.  The  breast  or  front  opening,  which  is  about 
a  foot  wide,  is  then  closed  and  dried,  and  a  certain 
quantity  of  ore  is  laid  upon  the  hot  coal,  at  the  top 
of  the  furnace.  The  furnace  is  kept  filled  with  fresh 
coal,  and  the  blast  applied.  This  is  made  by  two 
goat-skins,  which,  being  worked  alternately  by  hand, 
make  a  uniform  blast.  The  nozzles  are  of  bamboo 
sticks,  fastened  to  the  neck  of  the  skin ;  the  tail, 
and  a  similar  bamboo,  forming  the  valve,  which  is 
shut  and  opened  by  hand.  The  tuyere  is  made  of 
clay. 

From  three  to  four  hours  generally  finishes  the 
blast.  The  breast-wall  is  then  broken  open,  and  the 
iron  from  the  interior  of  the  furnace  removed.  The 
metal,  then  in  the  form  of  a  cake,  is  beaten  down 
with  wooden  mallets,  and  cut  so  as  to  show  the  inte^ 
rior,  but  not  broken ;  in  which  form  it  is  ready  for 
the  market.  The  ore  yields  about  fifteen  per  cent. 


74  MANUFACTURE     OF     STEEL. 

of  iron.  It  is  from  the  iron  thus  obtained  that  the 
wootz,  or  Indian  steel,  is  made.  This  iron  is  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  charged  with  about  ten  per  cent,  of 
dry  wood  in  crucibles.  The  crucibles  are  made  of 
fire-clay,  mixed  with  the  charred  husks  of  rice.  One 
pound  of  iron  is  generally  a  charge  for  a  crucible : 
it  is  covered  with  a  couple  of  green  leaves,  and 
a  layer  of  fire-clay  rammed  on  closely.  This  cruci- 
ble, when  charged,  is  gently  dried  to  expel  all  the 
water  and  hydrogen.  From  twenty  to  twenty-four 
of  such  crucibles  are  then  built,  in  the  form  of  an 
arch,  into  a  small  furnace,  and  covered  by  charcoal 
all  around,  when  fire  is  applied,  and  this  at  last  urged 
by  blast.  Two  or  two  and  a  half  hours  of  blast  ge- 
nerally finish  the  work ;  the  crucibles  are  then  re- 
moved from  the  fire,  and  allowed  to  cool.  When 
cold,  the  crucibles  are  broken  up,  and  the  steel  is 
found  in  the  bottom,  in  the  form  of  a  cake.  Good 
cakes  show  a  radial  crystallization  on  the  upper  sur- 
face, and  are  free  from  holes  and  blisters.  An  im- 
perfect fusion  shows  a  rough  surface,  or  honeycomb 
appearance,  with  lumps  of  malleable  iron.  In  this 
form  the  steel  is  brought  into  market,  and  corrected, 
in  re-melting  the  cakes,  by  fusing  many  together, 
and  running  them  into  ingots  like  common  cast-steel. 
It  is  said  that  wootz  which  has  been  re-melted  in  this 


DAMASCUS    STEEL.  75 

way  is  superior  for  the  manufacture  of  cutlery  to 
any  cast-steel. 

In  this  process  of  converting  iron-ore,  first  into 
iron,  and  then  into  steel,  we  find  all  the  elements  of 
our  present  mode  of  doing  the  same  business.  The 
blast-furnace  of  the  Asiatics  is,  on  a  small  scale,  our 
present  blast-furnace ;  though,  owing  to  their  imper- 
fect operation,  the  ore  which  yields  them  but  fifteen 
per  cent,  of  iron  wculd,  in  our  hands,  yield  at  least 
sixty  or  seventy  per  cent.  Instead  of  using,  as  they 
probably  do,  twenty  tons  of  fuel,  we  use  but  two 
tons  for  the  same  quantity  of  iron.  The  Asiatic 
mode  of  converting  iron  into  steel  is  the  mode  we 
follow  at  the  present  day ;  the  only  difference  being 
that  we  divide  the  operation  into  cementing  and  melt- 
ing, while  they  perform  both  in  the  same  heat.  It 
is  not  the  place  here  to  inquire  what  is  the  prefera- 
ble mode  of  manufacturing  steel ;  but  we  shall  con- 
sider the  subject  thoroughly  in  some  of  our  subse- 
quent pages. 

DAMASCUS  STEEL  —  DAMASCUS  BLADES. 

These  kre  terms  applied  to  a  kind  of  steel  which 
shows  a  variegated,  watery  appearance,  on  the  pol- 
ished surface.  It  is  originally  from  Asia,  and  the 


76  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

scimitars,  or  swords,  chiefly  from  Damascus,  where 
the  art  of  manufacturing  blades  appears  to  be  best 
understood.  The  excellent  quality  of  this  cutlery, 
particularly  scimitars,  has  long  been  proverbial ;  no 
other  steel  has  been  found  to  equal  it  in  tenacity  and 
hardness.  The  process  by  which  this  steel  is  worked 
is  not  known ;  it  is  a  secret  faithfully  preserved 
among  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture. 
European  artisans  and  scientific  men  have  endea- 
voured to  imitate  the  Asiatic  damask,  but  with  ill 
success ;  the  form  and  appearance  of  the  steel  has 
been  imitated,  but  its  quality  has  never  been  equalled. 
French  manufacturers,  particularly,  have  wasted  a 
great  deal  of  time  and  means  in  such  attempts.  The 
probable  cause  of  the  superior  quality  of  this  steel  is 
in  the  raw  material,  the  ore ;  and  it  may  in  some 
measure  be  attributable  to  the  skill  of  the  artisan  \\lio 
manufactures  the  blades.  It  has  been  ascertained 
that  the  ingots  of  wootz  of  \vhich  the  oriental  Damas- 
cus is  made  come  from  Golconda ;  and  it  is  therefore 
probable  that  it  is  manufactured  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  Indian  wootz  before  described.  This  supposi- 
tion is  strengthened  by  the  great  value  of  the  blades, 
and  the  peculiarities  of  the  wootz. 

Alexander  Burnes,  in  his  journey  to  Cabool,  tells 
us  that  a  scimitar  was  shown  him  in  that  city  which 


DAMASCUS    STEEL.  77 

was  valued  at  five  thousand  rupees,  and  two  others 
at  fifteen  hundred  each.  The  first  was  forged  in 
Ispahan,  in  the  time  of  Abbas  the  Great.  The  pe- 
culiar value  of  this  weapon  consisted  in  its  uniform 
damask ;  the  "  water"  could  be  traced  upon  it,  like 
a  skein  of  silk,  the  entire  length  of  the  blade.  Had 
this  "water"  been  interrupted  by  a  curve  or  cross, 
the  blade  would  have  been  of  little  value.  One  of  the 
cheaper  weapons  was  also  of  Persian  make ;  its  water 
did  not  run  straight,  parallel  with  the  blade,  but  was 
waved  like  a  watered  silk  fabric.  It  had  belonged  to 
Nadir  Shah.  The  third  scimitar  was  a  Khorassan 
blade ;  there  were  neither  straight  nor  waved  lines  in 
it,  but  it  was  mottled  with  black  spots.  All  three 
blades  were  strongly  curved,  but  the  first  more  so 
than  the  others.  They  tinkled  like  a  bell,  and  were 
said  to  improve  by  age.  How  very  interesting  these 
accidental  remarks  of  the  traveller  are  in  respect  to 
the  manufacture  of  steel  generally,  we  shall  sliow 
hereafter. 

Imitations  of  Damascus  steel  are  made  daily,  and 
have  been  made  for  the  last  fifty  years  ;  and  there  is 
no  doubt  some  good  has  resulted  from  these  experi- 
ments. The  real  value  of  the  imitations,  however, 
is  quite  limited,  and  we  shall  say  but  little  about  it. 
Damask  steel  has  been  made  and  is  made  of  such 


78  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

perfectly  developed  veins,  by  welding  together  bun- 
dles of  small  slips  of  steel  and  iron,  or  steel  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  that  all  imaginable  figures  which  can  be 
delineated  by  hand  have  been  imitated.  The  smooth 
water,  the  waved  water,  a  torsion  of  the  damask,  and 
the  spotted  damask,  have  all  been  produced ;  names, 
letters,  inscriptions,  leaves  and  flowers,  have  been 
represented;  but  all  these  pretty  things  do  not  make 
Damascus  blades  of  equal  quality  with  those  of 
Asiatic  manufacture.  It  appears  the  Persians  do  not 
use  so  much  skill  in  forging,  but  depend  upon  the 
elements.  Recent  experiments  have  shown  that  when 
blades  are  cooled  slowly,  as  by  swinging  them  in  the 
air,  a  damask  is  produced  on  steel  highly  charged 
with  carbon.  This,  however,  is  nothing  new ;  for 
the  next  best  blades  to  those  of  oriental  manufacture 
— the  blades  of  Solingen — have  been  hardened  or 
tempered  in  that  way  for  centuries.  It  is  certainly 
the  most  perfect  mode  of  hardening  steel,  where 
tenacity  also  is  desirable. 

It  is  said  that  one  hundred  parts  of  soft  iron,  and 
two  parts  of  lamp-black,  melted  together,  make  a 
fine  steel,  of  great  strength.  It  is  also  said  that 
equal  parts  of  cast  and  wrought-iron  turnings  make 
a  fine  steel,  of  damask  quality,  which  is  superior  for 
arms  and  edged  tools.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  by 


DAMASCUS    STEEL.  79 

such  means  as  the  foregoing,  an  imitation  of  the  ap- 
pearance of  damask  steel  may  be  effected ;  but  it  will 
depend  entirely  on  the  quality  of  the  steel,  the  iron, 
the  cast-iron,  the  lamp-black,  or  the  crucibles,  whe- 
ther the  resemblance  will  extend  to  the  quality  of  the 
steel.  Impure  materials  will,  under  all  circumstances, 
make  bad  steel ;  and  if  we  have  good,  pure  iron,  we 
can  make  good  steel  in  a  cheaper  way  than  that 
proposed. 

Some  experiments  have  been  made  by  melting 
together  cast-iron,  carbon  and  alumina,  so  that  the 
molten  iron  contained  aluminum.  A  portion  of  this 
aluminous  iron  was  melted  together  with  blistered 
steel,  and  the  result  was  a  steel  very  much  like  the 
wootz ;  it  showed  damask  very  distinctly.  Other 
manufacturers  than  those  who  made  the  experiments, 
however,  assert  that  aluminum  is  no  necessary  part 
of  Damascus  steel. 

The  damask  veins  may  be  made  to  appear  on  the 
surface  of  polished  steel  by  washing  it  with  a  thin 
solution  of  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid,  which  will  dis- 
solve the  softer  parts  of  the  steel  first,  or  those  parts 
which  contain  least  carbon ;  after  which  the  steel  is 
washed  in  fresh  water,  and  oiled,  or  waxed.  We  do 
not  know  whether  or  not  the  orientals  bring  out  their 
damask  in  a  similar  way ;  but  are  inclined  to  believe 


80  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

that  they  do  not.  In  some  parts  of  Europe  —  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  portions  of  Italy — steel  is  buried  under 
ground,  often  for  months  together,  to  improve  its 
quality.  May  not  this  be  the  manner  in  which  the 
orientals  etch  their  blades  ? 


GERMAN    STEEL.  81 


CHAPTER  III. 

GERMAN  STEEL— NATURAL  STEEL. 

In  a  few  places,  such  as  the  east  of  Europe,  and 
in  Russia,  steel  is  made  in  wolfs,  or  blue-ovens ;  a 
kind  of  high  furnace,  or  blast-furnace,  in  which  a 
certain  quantity  of  ore  is  melted ;  the  iron  gathers  in 
the  hearth,  and  is  then  broken  out  and  cut  to  pieces, 
by  which  the  iron  and  steel  are  separated.  It  is  thus 
a  similar  process  to  that  followed  by  the  Asiatics  in 
making  wootz,  except  that  the  apparatus  is  larger, 
and  more  iron  is  made  at  a  time.  This  process  is  of 
little  practical  value,  and  is  possessed  of  merely  an 
historic  interest. 

German  steel  derives  its  name,  not  from  being  of 
a  peculiar  quality,  though  that  is  the  case,  but  from 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  manufactured.  It  is  al- 
ways made  of  pig  or  plate  iron,  in  forges  where 
charcoal  is  used  for  fuel.  Natural  steel  may  be  made 
of  grey  pig-iron,  or  of  white  plate-iron ;  the  latter  is 


82 


MANUFACTURE    OF    BTEEL. 


FJg.  14. 


the  cheapest  method,  and  produces  the  best  steel.  As 
we  cannot  make  that  peculiar  white  plate-iron,  which 
the  Germans  call  steel-iron,  and  which  is  made  from 
the  sparry  carbonate  of  iron  as  its  ore,  because  we 
have  no  such  are,  we  shall  not  say  much  about  the 
manufacture  of  steel  from  such  peculiar  ore 

The  fires  or  forges  used  for  making  this  kind  of 
steel  are  the  common  forge-fires  of  the  smithy,  gene- 
rally known  as  the  charcoal  forge-fires.  They  resem- 
ble the  bloomery  fires,  the  only  difference  being  in 
some  minor  points  of  dimension.  In  fig.  14,  such  a 
forge-fire  is  represented,  in  a 
section  through  its  tuyere. 
The  chief  object  here  is  a 
stack  or  chimney,  A,  which 
is  from  twenty  to  forty  feet 
high,  and  of  the  width  inside 
of  two  feet  or  more,  so  as  to 
absorb  all  the  heat  and  smoke 
from  the  fire.  B  is  the  hearth 
or  forge-fire,  the  dimensions 
of  which  vary  according  to 
the  quality  of  the  crude  iron,  the  quality  of  steel  to 
be  made,  the  kind  of  charcoal  used,  the  description 
of  blast,  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  workman.  We 
shall  allude  to  these  dimensions  hereafter.  This 


GERMAN    STEEL.  83 

hearth  forms  a  square,  or  often  an  oblong,  basin. 
The  four  sides  are  cast-iron  plates ;  in  many  cases, 
however,  they  are  made  of  stones,  or  fire-brick.  The 
bottom  is  formed  of  sandstone ;  and  it  depends  very 
much  upon  the  composition  of  this  sandstone,  of 
what  quality  the  steel  will  be.  C  is  the  tuyere  of 
copper,  which  may  be  replaced  by  iron ;  but  a  water 
tuyere,  as  is  used  in  the  iron  forge,  will  not  do  here. 
D  is  the  blast-pipe  and  nozzle ;  the  latter  is  to  be 
moveable,  and  is  therefore  connected  with  the  main- 
pipe-.  Hot  blast  cannot  be  applied  here  as  is  done 
in  making  iron.  The  blast-pipe,  which  is  five  or  six 
inches  wide,  and  made  of  tin-plate  or  sheet-iron,  is 
provided  with  a  throttle  valve,  so  as  to  regulate  the 
blast  at  pleasure,  according  to  the  requirements  of 
the  work.  E  is  merely  a  column  of  iron,  wood,  or 
stone,  designed  to  support  a  sheet-iron  hood,  or  roof, 
which  is  to  protect  the  workman,  and  carry  off  the 
heat.  The  chimney,  foundations,  and  walls,  may  be 
built  of  either  brick  or  stone, 
as  most  convenient. 

In  fig.  15  the  same  forge- 
fire  is  represented  from 
above.  It  is  here  assumed 
that  two  fires  are  at  the 
same  stack ;  if  necessary, 
8 


84 


MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


more-  than  two  may  be  erected  to  one  chimney.  Thia 
figure  requires  but  little  explanation.  A  is  the  chim- 
ney, B  B  the  fire-hearths ;  in  fact,  the  references 
used  in  fig.  14  denote  the  same  objects  here. 


THE    BLAST 

Is  made  by  strong  blacksmiths'  bellows,  of  which 
there  should  be  two  pair,  driven  by  water-power,  or 
any  other  force ;  or  the  bellows  may  be  of  wood,  in 
the  form  of  the  common  leather  bellows,  or  ekher 
wooden  or  iron  cylinders.  A  powerful  blast  is  not 
so  requisite  here  as  in  making  wrought-iron.  The 
best  blast  for  the  purpose  would  be  a  good  fan,  such 
as  is  now  generally  in  use. 


Fig.  16. 


Fig.  17 


Fig.  16  represents  a  fan  of  the  improved  form, 
which  makes  at  least  twice-  the  pressure  of  the  old 


GERMAN    STEEL.  85 

fan  ;  the  engraving  shows  a  horizontal  section  through 
the  centre  shaft  of  the  vanes.  Fig.  17  is  a  vertical 
section  of  the  fan.  The  shaft  is  made  of  steel,  the 
four  vanes  of  copper,  and  the  cross  arms  which  carry 
the  vanes  are  of  brass  or  wrought-iron.  The  four 
vanes  are  enclosed  in,  and  fastened  to,  two  rings  of 
sheet-copper,  which  form  with  the  vanes  a  round  box, 
open  at  the  periphery  and  at  the  centres.  The  air 
enters  at  the  centre,  and  is  expelled  at  the  periphery. 
This  round  box,  which  is  composed  of  the  axle,  the 
cross,  the  four  vanes,  and  the  two  sides  in  one  piece, 
moves  in  a  cast-iron  case  of  the  form  of  the  common 
fans.  The  blast  is  driven  out  at  some  convenient 
place  in  the  circumference  of  the  cuter  or  stationary 
case ;  it  makes  no  difference  where,  or  at  what  place 
in  the  periphery,  this  is  done.  The  inner  case  fits  as 
closely  as  possible  with  its  rims  to  the  cast-iron  case. 
The  two  cases  are  bored  and  turned  on  the  lathe, 
where  they  meet  in  the  centre. 

FORGE-HAMMERS. 

Besides  forge-fires,  there  are  to  be  hammers  or 
tilts,  for  forging  and  refining  natural  steel.  Up  to 
the  present'period,  we  have  had  no  better  machinery 
than  the  old,  well-known  tail-hammer ;  that  is,  a  tilt 


86  MANUFACTURE     OF    STEEL. 

which  is  chiefly  built  of  wood,  and  where  the  moving 
power  is  attached  to  the  tail-end  of  the  hammer-helve. 
For  a  series  of  years,  improvements  in  the  old  form 
of  construction  have  been  proposed  and  executed,  but 
with  ill  success ;  there  is  hardly  anything  known  that 
can  be  considered  an  improvement  on  this  primitive 
mode. 

Fig.  18  shows  a  side  view  of  a  common  tilt,  as  it 
is  used  in  this  country,  England,  Germany,  &c. 
There  are  often  slight  deviations  in  the  form,  but  in 
the  main  it  is  everywhere  the  same.  This  figure  also 

Fig.  18. 


explains  itself;  it  shows  the  hammer,  whose  helve, 
of  dry  white  oak  or  hickory,  is  from  six  to  seven  feet 
long,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  hammer.  The 
hammer-head  should  be  of  wrought-iron,  and  its  face 


GERMAN    STEEL.  87 

plated  with  one  inch  thick  of  cast-steel,  well  hardened 
and  polished. 

For  the  forging  of  scythes,  files,  and  other  small 
articles,  the  hammer-head  is  of  about  fifty  pounds  in 
weight ;  for  drawing  loups  and  refining,  the  weight 
is  increased  to  two  hundred  pounds.  The  head  is 
secured  to  the  helve  hy  wooden  wedges,  into  which 
wedges  of  iron  are  driven.  The  eye  of  the  helve  is 
tapered  on  both  sides,  like  an  axe,  which  prevents 
its  flying  off.  The  wooden  wedges  are  used  for  the 
protection  of  the  helve  and  head.  At  the  tail-end, 
the  helve  is  provided  with  a  strong  iron  ring,  or  hoop, 
firmly  fastened  to  the  helve.  This  hoop  (sometimes 
there  are  more  than  one)  holds  a  flat  steel  bar,  which 
rests  upon  the  helve,  and  upon  which  the  cams  or 
wipers  strike.  Below  the  helve,  at  the  tail,  is  another 
iron  or  steel  plate,  held  by  the  hoops,  which  strikes 
upon  a  piece  of  timber  so  laid  as  to  spring  back  when 
pressed  down  by  the .  hammer.  This  wooden  spring 
is  provided  with  a  steel  or  iron  plate,  upon  which  the 
tail  end  of  the  hammer  strikes. 

The  practice,  in  lifting  the  hammer,  is  not  to  raise 
it  slowly,  according  to  the  speed  of  gravitation,  but 
to  strike  the  tail  of  the  hammer  with  great  speed,  and 
fling  the  hammer  so  that  the  wiper  merely  touches 
the  tail.  The  hammer,  in  being  moved  with  great 


88  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

velocity,  touches  the  spring-timber  under  the  tail,  and 
the  head  is  forced  down  by  this  recoil  upon  the  hot 
steel  on  the  anvil.  The  lift  of  these  hammers  is  in 
most  cases  but  a  few  inches;  of  the  heaviest,  but 
eight  or  ten  inches.  The  force  is  chiefly  produced 
by  recoil.  The  speed  of  these  hammers  is  unusually 
great,  the  heaviest  kind  making  from  two  hundred  to 
two  hundred  and  fifty  strokes  per  minute.  Small 
hammers,  for  forging  thin  or  small  articles,  make 
from  four  to  five  hundred  strokes  in  the  same  time. 


THE    FACES 

Of  the  hammers  are  from  five  to  nine  inches  long, 
and  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  inches 
wide  The  anvil  is  in  most  instances  made  of  wrought- 
iron ;  and  a  hardened  steel  plate,  a  little  wider  than 
the  face  of  the  hammer,  is  dovetailed  and  wedged  in, 
as  represented  in  fig.  19.  The 

Fie.  19. 

anvil  may  also  be  made  of  cast-iron, 
and  the  cast-steel  welded  to  it  when 
casting  the  block ;  an  operation 
now  very  well  performed  in  a  fac- 
tory in  Trenton,  N.  J.  The  anvil 
is  fastened  by  wedges  in  a  heavy 
wooden  log,  which  extends  eight  feet  or  more  under 


GERMAN    STEEL.  89 

ground ;  so  deep,  that  the  earth  is  sufficiently  solid 
to  resist  the  farther  depression  of  the  log.  If  the 
ground  should  be  too  loose,  swampy  or  sandy,  piles 
should  be  driven,  and  the  anvil-log  set  upon  them. 
The  anvil-log  is  frequently  three  feet  or  more  in  dia- 
meter, taking  the  butt-end  uppermost,  and  is  provided 
on  both  ends  with  strong  iron  hoops,  which  prevent  its 
splitting.  The  position  of  the  anvil-log  is  a  serious  af- 
fair in  erecting  a  hammer ;  if  not  well  supported  below, 
it  will  sink ;  and  a  rock  foundation  is  equally  bad,  for 
on  it  the  log  is  crushed.  To  protect  the  wood,  and 
afford  stability  to  the  anvil,  the  vertical  log  is  pro- 
vided with  a  cast-iron  crown,  or  chabote,  which  weighs 
from  one  to  three  tons.  This  chabote  is  fastened 
upon  the  log,  and  the  anvil  is  set  in  a  square  hole  on 
its  upper  face.  .  This  iron  block  receives  the  momen- 
tum of  the  strokes,  and  protects  the  anvil-log  against 
sinking  and  crushing.  Stone  foundations  for  the 
anvil  are  expensive  and  insecure. 


THE    PILLARS, 

Or  housings  in  which  the  fulcrum  of  the  hammer 
is  fixed,  are  in  most  cases  made  of  good  hard  wood. 
There  are  also  cast-iron  frames  for  this  purpose ;  but, 
considering  the  first  cost  of  such  iron  frames,  and 


•90  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

their  short  durability,  there  is  nothing  gained  in 
using  that  metal  for  these  standards.  We  will  not, 
therefore,  further  allude  to  iron  standards,  but  pro- 
ceed to  describe  the  construction  of  those  which  are 
made  of  wood. 

The  two  pillars  of  the  housing  are  made  of  good 
white  oak,  eleven  or  twelve  feet  long,  ten  or  twelve 
inches  thick,  and  about  twenty-four  inches  wide.  In 
case  such  heavy  timber  cannot  be  had,  two  sticks  are 
bolted  together  by  iron  screw-bolts.  About  three  or 
four  feet  of  the  two  pillars  are  above  ground.  The 
part  below  ground  is  provided  with  cross  timbers, 
as  shown  in  fig.  20,  which  is  a  view  of  the  hammer 

Fig.  30. 


from  above.  The  timbers,  A,  BB,  are  from  five  to 
six  or  more  feet  long,  and  are  fastened  to  the  pillars 
by  screw-bolts,  which  are  from  eighteen  inches  to 
two  feet  apart.  Below  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
the  cross-timbers  are  securely  held  down  by  heavy 
blocks  of  stone,  and  firmly  walled  into  the  ground, 


GERMAN    STEEL.  91 

80  as  to  prevent  all  possible  motion  of  the  tim- 
bers. This  stone-work  can  scarcely  be  too  heavy. 
Above-ground,  the  space  between  the  pillars  is  open, 
to  receive  the  fulcrum  of  the  hammer.  The  fulcrum, 
F,  which  is  fastened  to  the  hammer-helve  by  wedges, 
is  made  of  cast-iron  with  chilled  points,  or  of  wrought- 
iron  with  steel  points.  In  the  wooden  pillars,  two 
cast-iron  plates  of  hard  metal  are  inserted,  with  some 
half  a  dozen  holes  to  receive  the  points  of  the  ful- 
crum. These  plates  are  from  two  to  three  inches 
thick,  eight  wide,  and  sixteen  inches  long.  They  are 
inserted  in  the  wood  so  as  to  be  moveable ;  for  the 
adjustment  of  the  hammer  and  anvil  faces  is  regu- 
lated by  the  shifting  of  these  plates.  Wooden  wedges 
are  used  for  fastening  these  blocks,  as  iron  screw- 
bolts  do  not  resist  the  raking  force  of  the  hammer. 
In  making  these  plates  large,  so  as  almost  to  cover 
the  interior  of  the  pillars,  and  providing  them  with 
a  sufficient  number  of  screws,  we  no  doubt  gain  an 
advantage  ;  they  are  certainly  preferable  to  the  small 
plates.  There  is  no  need  of  large  holes  for  the  screw- 
bolts,  if  the  plates  are  provided  with  various  centre- 
holes.  The  pillars  above  ground  are  held  together 
by  three  iron  bolts,  which  serve  in  the  mean  time  to 
hold  the  pillars  close  in  the  points  of  the  fulcrum. 
Hammers  are  generally  worked  by  water-power, 


92  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

partly  because  the  speed  necessarily  varies,  and  such 
variation  can  be  most  conveniently  regulated  by  a 
small  water-wheel  —  partly  also  because  the  first  out- 
lay is  generally  less  for  a  water-wheel  than  for  a 
steam-engine — but  chiefly,  because  the  running  cost 
is  lower  by  the  water-wheel. 

The  tap-ring  is  invariably  a  cast-iron  hoop,  of  six 
or  eight  inches  wide  and  three  or  four  inches  thick, 
in  which  there  are  from  eight  to  twenty-four  wipers. 
The  cams,  or  wipers,  are  either  of  cast-iron,  wrought- 
iron,  or  (if  small)  of  steel,  wedged  by  wood  into  the 
square  holes  of  the  ring.  The  ring  is  to  be  of  at 
least  four  feet  diameter;  it  may  even  be  larger. 
Small  tap-rings  are  very  injurious  to  the  hammer  and 
its  frame. 

The  shaft  is  sometimes  of  wood ;  but  cast-iron  is 
the  best.  It  may  be  made  hollow,  to  increase  its 
strength  with  the  same  weight.  The  water-wheel, 
which  is  on  the  same  shaft  with  the  tap-ring,  is  either 
of  wood  or  iron,  but  is  to  be  strong  in  both  cases,  as 
the  reaction  upon  the  wheel  from  the  hammer  would 
soon  shake  it  to  pieces,  if  not  well  braced.  The 
water-wheel  is  in  most  cases  seven  or  eight  feet  in 
diameter,  seldom  more  than  nine  or  less  than  five 
feet.  The  size  of  the  water-wheel  depends  partly  on 
the  head  of  water,  but  chiefly  on  its  quantity.  If 


GERMAN    STEEL.  93 

there  is  an  abundance  of  water,  the  pressure  is  prin- 
cipally relied  on ;  where  economy  is  to  be  exercised, 
the  weight  gives  the  power ;  but  in  most  cases  both 
weight  and  pressure  are  used.  Where  steel  is  drawn, 
or  hardware  manufactured  by  force-hammers,  the 
speed  of  the  driving  power  must  be  absolutely  in  the 
command  of  the  workman,  as  it  is  impossible  to  work 
thin  steel  to  advantage  with  a  uniform  rate  of  speed. 
Drawing  steel  rods,  and  similar  work,  may  be  done, 
after  some  experience ;  but  the  forging  of  scythes, 
sickles,  and  such  light  articles,  cannot  be  done,  with 
a  due  regard  to  excellence,  by  a  uniform  speed  of  the 
hammer. 

For  the  reasons  we  have  given,  a  wheel  for  a 
steel-hammer  should  always  have  a  head  of  five  or 
six  feet  of  water,  which  is  led  in  such  a  manner  upon 
a  breast-wheel  that  it  may  be  used  either  by  weight 
or  by  pressure.  A  wheel  of  seven  feet  diameter 
should  work  by  ten  revolutions,  and  must  be  capable 
of  making  twenty-five.  This  will  give,  with  a  tap- 
ring  of  four  feet  diameter,  and  sixteen  wipers,  from 
one  hundred  and  sixty  to  four  hundred  strokes,  which 
difference  is  required  for  small  hammers  and  light 
work.  For  large  hammers,  the  extremes  need  not  be 
so  great.  Each  hammer  should  have  its  own  inde- 
pendent speed ;  for  it  is  the  varying  heat  and  thick- 


94  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

ness  of  the  work  which  renders  the  variation  in 
speed  necessary;  and  this  differs  at  each  hammer. 

These  irregularities  in  speed  cause,  of  course,  a 
great  loss  of  power,  either  of  water  or  steam ;  and 
in  consequence  of  this  loss,  a  great  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  connect  a  series  of  hammers  with 
one  stationary  power,  and  regulate  the  speed  by  belts 
and  drums.  In  the  New  England  States,  these  at- 
tempts, in  some  instances,  have  been  successful;  but 
in  Europe  they  have  generally  failed.  The  cause  of 
failure  is  the  inability  to  produce  a  sudden  change  of 
speed  in  the  belt. 

The  arrangement  we  have  described  is  by  no  means 
the  most  perfect ;  but  it  is  approved  and  simple,  and 
the  best  adapted  to  show  the  principles  involved. 
The  sudden  jerks  given  by  the  hammer  to  the  shaft 
and  wheel  render  it  necessary  to  make  both  as  strong 
as  if  of  one  piece.  Heavy  masses  are  well  applied ; 
but  it  is  ill  policy  to  go  beyond  the  necessary  weight. 
The  momentum  of  the  wheel  and  shaft  is  then  an 
obstacle  to  sudden  changes  of  speed,  which  are 
always  necessary. 

If  a  wheel  of  seven  feet  makes  twenty-five  revolu- 
tions, and  the  cam-ring  is  four  feet,  it  will  impart 
a  speed  of  five  feet  per  second  to  the  wipers.  The 
speed  of  the  hammer-head  is  to  be  greater  than  that 


GERMAN    STEEL.  95 

of  gravitation  in  the  first  second,  or  sixteen  feet.  If 
the  fulcrum  is  set  one  distance  from  the  tail,  and 
three  distances  to  the  head,  the  next  wiper  will  catch 
the  tail  before  the  head  is  on  the  anvil,  if  there  are 
but  six  inches  stroke.  The  fulcrum  is  to  be  at  one 
for  the  tail  and  four  to  the  head,  which  will  give 
sufficient  speed  and  recoil. 

Force-hammers  of  a  great  variety  of  forms  are  in 
use,  in  this  country  as  well  as  in  Europe ;  but,  of  all 
the  variety,  there  is  none  better  adapted  for  forging 
steel  and  hardware  than  the  tail-hammer  we  have 
described. 

MAKING    STEEL. 

The  operation  of  making  natural  steel  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  making  charcoal  blooms  of  pig 
iron.  On  melting  grey  pig  or  mottled  iron  in  the 
charcoal  forge,  it  frequently  happens  that  a  part  of 
the  iron  is  naturally  ready  for  forging,  while  the 
other  portion  is  at  the  bottom,  in  a  liquid  state.  The 
portion  of  the  charge  which  is  soonest  ready  is  a  mix- 
ture of  crude  steel  and  fibrous  iron,  and  may  be  said 
to  be  spring-steel. 

In  all  our  remarks  on  natural  or  German  steel,  we 
wish  it  to  be  understood  that  we  speak  but  with 
reference  to  cold-blast  charcoal  pig-iron.  Hot-blast, 


96  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

anthracite,  or  coke-iron,  will  never  make  an  article 
that  can  with  propriety  be  called  steel,  or  answer  the 
uses  of  that  metal. 

We  have  said  that  in  melting  grey  pig  or  mottled 
iron,  we  frequently  find  a  description  of  natural 
steel.  This  may  be  of  a  tolerably  good  quality,  but 
it  is  never  suitable  for  edged  tools,  or  for  any  pur- 
pose where  strength  is  required.  If  such  lumps  of 
steel  are  from  good,  strong  pig-iron  —  that  is,  iron 
which  makes  a  strong  bar-iron,  and  is  smelted  of  pure 
ore,  such  as  magnetic  and  specular  ore  —  they  are  of 
use  for  common  blacksmiths'  purposes,  and  particu- 
larly for  springs  and  agricultural  implements.  They 
are  drawn  out  into  square  or  flat  bars,  of  one  inch 
square,  or  less,  and  then  fagoted  and  welded,  by 
which  the  steel  is  greatly  improved.  If  it  should  be 
hard  and  show  no  fibres  after  the  first  refining,  it 
may  be  piled  once  more,  when  it  will  become  still 
more  uniform. 

The  steel  made  in  this  way  is,  in  reality,  not  steel ; 
it  is  simply  a  kind  of  hard  wrought-iron,  which  is 
brittle  or  tenacious  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
pig-iron  from  which  it  is  obtained.  This  is  the  most 
simple  form,  the  first  step  in  the  approach  to  the 
making  of  steel.  A  hard,  brittle  wrought-iron,  made 
directly  from  the  ore,  no  matter  how  good  that  ore 


GERMAN    STEEL.  97 

may  be,  is  never  nure  than  a  brittle,  impure,  cold- 
short bar  iron. 

The  foregoing  process  of  making  steel  is  the  result 
of  imperfect  work  in  the  forge,  which  never  ought  to 
happen.  If  the  pig-iron  is  of  such  a  quality  as  to  be 
suitable  for  steel,  it  is  better  to  rebuild  the  fire,  and 
prepare  it  for  the  work  of  a  few  days,  or  a  regular 
course  of  steel-making. 

When  steel  is  to  be  made  of  Nos.  1  or  2  pig-iron, 
the  common  charcoal  forge  in  which  bar-iron  is  re- 
fined, is  altered  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  making  of 
steel.  The  principle  which  governs  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  natural  steel  is,  the  regulation  of  the  refining 
process  in  such  a  manner  as  to  delay  the  completion 
of  the  refining,  and  still  expose  the  iron  to  a  high 
heat.  The  pig  is  melted  opposite  the  tuyere,  instead 
of  above  it,  as  in  making  iron ;  or,  if  very  grey  pig, 
it  is  melted  above  the  blast.  The  principal  requisite, 
however,  is  a  hot  fire,  that  the  iron  may  be  melted 
down  as  speedily  as  possible. 

The  fluid  pig-iron  is  in  this  way  brought  below  the 
tuyere,  where  it  is  worked  gently  by  hot  tools  to  pre- 
vent its  boiling,  If  the  iron  boils  below  the  tuyere, 
it  will  not  make  steel,  but  short  iron ;  the  Swedish 
bars  are  made  in  that  way.  The  iron  should  never 
be  allowed  to  boil ;  and  if  it  chills  on  the  bottom, 


98  MANUFACTURE     OP     STEEL. 

and  is  very  hot,  it  is  brought  opposite  to  or  above  the 
tuyere,  but  so  far  off  as  not  to  be  touched  by  the 
blast.  The  principal  difference  in  making  iron  and 
steel  is,  that  iron  is  to  be  worked  diligently,  and  is 
never  worked  too  much ;  while  in  making  steel,  the 
work  must  be  regulated  by  a  practised  judgment. 
Steel  must  be  protected  against  the  blast ;  still,  the 
fire  and  iron  are  to  be  very  hot,  and  uniformly  hot. 
It  is  never  broken  up  by  a  bar ;  but  the  cake  of  iron 
retain  the  form  it  receives  on  melting  and  flowing 
into  the  hearth ;  the  blast  being  so  directed  as  to 
heat  it  uniformly. 

The  practice  of  making  steel  is  somewhat  different 
if  the  pig-iron  should  be  No.  2,  or  white  iron.  We 
have  little  or  no  ore  which  will  make  a  good  white 
iron  for  steel.  The  only  useful  ore  which  we  know 
of  is  the  Missouri  iron  mountain  ore  —  a  particularly 
good  quality  of  per-oxyde  —  or  the  specular  ore  of 
Lake  Superior,  of  which  we  know  but  little.  There 
are  other  good  ores  in  New  Jersey,  viz.,  the  Andover 
specular  ore ;  but  this  is  not  used  at  present,  although 
in  the  last  century  steel  was  made  from  it.  Such 
white  iron  —  that  is,  No.  2  iron,  or  that  made  by  a 
heavy  burden  in  the  blast-furnace  —  is  melted  entirely 
above  the  tuyere,  in  the  strongest  heat  and  a  strong 
blast.  By  the  time  such  iron  arrives  at  the  bottom 


GERMAN    STEEL.  99 

of  the  hearth,  it  is  almost  converted  into  steel.  A 
low  heat  and  weak  blast  will  make  iron  instead  of 
steel.  In  this  instance,  the  pig-iron  is  selected  with 
particular  reference  to  steel.  Open  or  mottled  No.  2 
is  reserved  for  wrought  iron ;  and  only  the  close, 
compact,  crystallized,  clean  pigs  are  selected  for  steel. 
The  pigs  or  plates  for  steel  are  not  to  be  cast  in 
chills,  nor  in  damp  sand  ;  they  are  cast  in  heavy  pigs, 
either  in  dry  sand,  or,  what  is  better,  in  charcoal- 
dust.  If,  during  the  melting-in  of  this  pig-iron,  some 
of  it  is  converted  into  fibrous  iron,  it  does  not  mat- 
ter; it  may  be  reconverted  into  steel  by  giving  a 
strong  blast,  and  keeping  such  blast  off  the  iron ;  it 
will  then  once  more  dissolve  and  unite  with  the  crude 
iron,  or  steel. 


FLUXES. 

In  all  cases,  the  addition  of  fluxes  to  the  melted 
iron,  such  as  hammer-slag  or  scales,  cinders  of  former 
heats,  iron-ore,  and  similar  matter,  is  to  be  avoided. 
Though  such  fluxes  may  be  good  in  making  iron, 
they  are  worse  than  useless  in  manufacturing  steel. 
A  fluid  c/nder  should  always  be  around  the  cake  of 
iron,  or  steel ;  if  the  fire  works  too  dry,  it  is  better 


100  MANUFACTURE     OF     STEEL. 

to  throw  some  fine  fire-clay,  or  fine  white  sand,  on 
the  cake,  to  make  cinder.  Anything  else,  no  matter 
what  its  name  may  be,  is  injurious  to  the  steel,  and 
should  be  most  carefully  avoided. 

PIG-IRON, 

No.  3,  or  white  iron  with  much  carbon,  of  a  quality 
suited  to  the  manufacture  of  steel,  is  not  made  in 
this  country.  We  have  no  ore  for  making  such  iron. 
White  iron  highly  carbonized,  as  it  is  frequently 
made  in  blast-furnaces  when  the  operations  are  dis- 
ordered, is  the  least  useful  for  steel.  We  know  of 
but  the  black  magnetic  and  specular  ores,  in  this 
country,  which  are  of  any  use  for  the  manufacture 
of  natural  steel.  These  ores  are  to  be  smelted  by 
charcoal  and  cold-blast,  and  the  blast-furnace  should 
not  be  overburdened,  or  the  product  will  be  cold-short 
wrought-iron,  and  not  steel. 

The  method  of  working  Nos.  1  and  2  pig-iron  dif- 
fers essentially  from  that  pursued  in  working  No.  3. 
The  dimensions  of  the  fire-hearth  and  arrangement 
of  the  blast  are  also  very  different ;  so  that  Nos.  1 
and  2  cannot  be  worked  in  a  hearth  intended  for 
No.  3.  As,  however,  we  have  no  No.  3  pig-iron 
which  is  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  steel,  we 
shall  confine  our  remarks  to  Nos.  1  and  2. 


GERMAN    STEEL.  101 


THE    MAKING 

Of  steel  requires  great  heat.  For  this  reason,  the 
fire  is  made  more  flat ;  the  bottom  is  raised,  and  the 
tuyere  not  dipped  so  much  as  in  making  iron.  Grey 
iron  admits  of  more  dip  of  the  blast  than  mottled  or 
white  pig.  When  working  the  latter,  the  wind  is  to 
be  kept  off  the  bottom,  or  the  steel  cakes  altogether 
too  fast.  Grey  pig  requires  less  blast  than  mottled ; 
white  iron  should  have  a  strong  blast,  and  the  highest 
possible  degree  of  heat.  Grey  iron  made  from  the 
same  ore  as  the  white,  will  make  a  better  steel  than 
the  latter ;  but  it  requires  more  labour  and  attention 
than  to  work  white  iron. 

Under  all  conditions,  a  high  heat  is  desirable ;  but 
as  grey  pig  works  rather  slowly,  the  heat  is  dimi- 
nished ;  this  often  arises  from  the  quality  of  the  pro- 
duct. The  heat  and  blast  should  be  uniform,  as  well 
during  the  melting,  as  after  the  metal  has  caked  in 
the  bottom.  The  tuyere  or  nozzles  are  sometimes 
shifted;  but  this  is  an  imperfect  way  of  mending 
matters,  and  the  necessity  for  it  should  be  avoided. 
Two  nozzles,  and  a  broad  half-round  or  oval  tuyere, 
will  be  found  of  great  advantage.  A  round  tuyere, 
with  one  round  nozzle,  is  not  adapted  to  the  purpose, 


102  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

and  should  not  be  admitted  into  a  forge  for  the  ma- 
nufacture of  steel. 

The  more  the  iron  is  inclined  to  give  up  its  carbon, 
which  is  always  the  case  with  the  best  and  purest 
kinds  of  iron,  the  more  should  the  work  be  hurried, 
and  the  higher  should  be  the  heat.  The  bottom  of 
the  fire  is  to  be  clean  and  dry,  every  drop  of  cinder 
tapped  off,  and  every  particle  of  scoria  removed,  be- 
fore the  iron  is  melted  down.  This  is  a  standing 
rule,  which  must  be  rigorously  adhered  to  in  all 
cases ;  but  more  particularly  with  white  and  good  pig 
than  with  grey  or  bad  iron. 

Pig-iron  which  is  grey,  or  which  works  too  slowly, 
may  be  improved  by  melting  it  down,  and  gradually 
introducing  small  quantities  of  good,  pure  scrap-iron, 
cut  up  finely,  and  freed  from  rust  or  scales.  These 
scraps  are  to  be  of  old  iron,  or  old  steel ;  fresh  scraps 
are  not  of  much  use.  The  scraps  dissolve  in  the 
fluid  iron,  and  are  put  into  it  quite  hot,  almost  at  a 
welding  heat,  to  prevent  the  cooling  of  the  mass. 
Impure  or  rusty  scrap-iron,  and  cold  water,  are  to  be 
avoided;  they  make  the  iron  boil,  and  give  it  a 
fibrous  quality.  By  avoiding  what  we  have  desig- 
nated, the  heat  may  be  increased  without  any  fear 
that  the  iron  will  boil ;  it  will  assume  a  pasty,  thick 
appearance,  and  soon  become  strong  enough  to  bo 


GERMAN    STEEL.  103 

fihingled.  Reducing  the  blast,  diminishing  the  heat, 
or  turning  the  blast  upon  the  melted  iron  to  accele- 
rate the  process,  are  bad  practices  ;  they  either  make 
cold-short  and  brittle  or  fibrous  iron. 


FORM  AND  DIMENSIONS  OF  HEARTH. 

The  form  and  dimensions  of  an  approved  hearth 
for  converting  grey  pig-iron  into  steel  are  ate  follows 
(we  refer  to  fig.  14) :  The  square  fire-hearth  is  thirty- 
four  or  thirty-six  inches  wide  from  the  tuyere  to  the 
opposite  side.  The  cast-iron  plate  at  the  tuyere  is  at  an 
inclination  of  about  10°  or  12°  to  the  hearth,  which 
is  about  one  and  a  half  inch  on  twelve  inches  high. 
The  opposite  plate  is  as  much  inclined  out  of  the 
hearth,  to  permit  a  more  easy  access  to  the  loup  of 
steel.  The  timp-plate,  or  that  plate  nearest  the  work- 
man, which  is  the  front  part  of  the  drawing,  is  vertical, 
but  is  a  few  inches  higher  than  the  other  three  plates. 
Its  opposite  plate  is  thirty  inches  distant.  In  the 
timp-plate  is  a  round  hole  of  two  or  three  inches  dia- 
meter, for  letting  out  cinder  and  F>S-  21. 
scoria.  A  copper  tuyere,  very  much 
tapered,  as  represented  in  fig.  21,  is 
inclined  about  12°  into  the  fire,  and 
projects  about  four  inches  into  the 


104  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

hearth ;  at  its  narrowest  end,  it  is  one  and  a  half  by 
half  an  inch  wide.  The  distance  of  the  tuyere  from 
the  timp-plate  is  twenty  inches,  and  from  the  back 
plate  ten  inches.  The  cast-iron  plates  around  the 
fire  are  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  inches 
thick ;  and  as  they  are  always  covered  with  charcoal 
dust,  or  braize,  there  is  not  much  danger  of  their 
burning  out.  The  height  of  the  tuyere  above  the 
bottom  is  five  inches  —  never  more  than  six.  The 
height  above  the  tuyere  is  variable ;  it  may  be  four 
or  five  inches,  for  very  hard  coal :  fine  coal,  or  soft 
coal,  make  nine  or  ten  inches  necessary,  at  least  at 
the  timp  and  opposite  the  tuyere.  The  bottom,  one 
of  the  most  important  portions  of  the  fire,  is  a  sand- 
stone slab  of  two  or  three  inches  thick ;  it  rests  upon 
an  iron  base,  but  better  upon  sand.  This  bottom  is 
better  if  in  one  piece,  but  may  answer  if  of  several 
pieces.  On  the  quality  of  these  stones  the  success 
of  the  operation  mainly  depends.  Coarse  sandstones, 
in  which  much  iron,  lime  and  magnesia  are  found, 
are  not  good ;  they  will  make  iron,  but  no  steel. 
Stones  in  which  there  is  lime  are  also  unsuitable.  A 
fine-grained,  slaty  sandstone,  in  which  there  is  much 
clay,  and  which  does  not  effervesce  with  acids,  is  the 
best  for  the  purpose.  Fire-brick  are  not  good ;  they 
do  not  last,  and  cause  great  waste  in  iron.  If  the 


GERMAN    STEEL.  105 

stones  for  the  bottom  are  of  the  right  sort,  the  work 
progresses  faster,  and  the  steel  is  hotter.  Good 
stones  will  last  eight  or  twelve  heats ;  had  ones  often 
hut  one  or  two.  If  the  stones  are  gently  dried  and 
heated  before  they  are  put  in  the  hearth,  they  last 
much  longer ;  two  or  four  weeks  should  he  allowed 
for  drying.  The  advantage  of  having  the  bottom  in 
one  piece  consists  in  the  fact  that  it  will  last  longer, 
and  that  the  work-bars  are  not  retarded  in  passing 
over  the  crevices,  as  in  a  hearth  composed  of  several 
pieces.  The  crevices  between  the  stones,  where  a 
single  slab  of  sufficient  size  cannot  be  obtained,  are 
filled  with  fire-clay,  or  fire-proof  sand ;  clay  is  pre- 
ferable to  sand. 


MANIPULATION. 

A  fire-hearth  prepared  in  the  above  manner  is 
covered  on  the  inside  with  a  layer  of  clean  charcoal 
dust,  which  is  well-rammed  in,  partly  to  protect  the 
iron  sides,  and  partly  to  have  a  non-conductor  of  heat 
between  the  melted  or  hot  steel,  and  the  cast-iron 
plates.  The  bottom  stone  is  left  bare,  or  only  co- 
vered with  some  fine  charcoal.  The  hearth  is  then 
filled  with  charcoal,  and  the  fire  gently  urged  by  the 
blast.  Upon  the  dust  of  the  far-off  plate,  some 


106  MANUFACTURE    OF    8TEKL. 

pieces  of  steel  from  the  last  heat  may  be  laid,  partly 
to  secure  the  dust,  and  partly  to  re-heat  these  pieces 
for  subsequent  drawing. 

When  the  fire  is  well  burnt  through,  and  every 
part  of  it  warm,  the  pig-iron,  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds,  is  laid  opposite  the  tuyere,  upon  the 
charcoal,  so  that  it  may  be  uniformly  heated,  without 
melting.  At  this  stage  of  the  operation,  a  little 
hammer-slag,  or  fine  cinder,  is  strewn  over  the  fire, 
so  as  to  make  a  slight  film  or  covering  of  cinder  over 
the  bottom,  by  which  the  bottom  is  protected,  and 
the  heat  augmented. 

During  the  heating  of  the  pig-iron,  the  pieces  of 
steel  from  the  last  heat  are  brought  above  the  tuyere, 
and  heated  for  shingling  and  drawing.  In  the  mean- 
tune,  a  piece  of  pig-iron,  weighing  about  twenty 
pounds,  is  placed  in  such  a  position  opposite  the 
tuyere,  but  out  of  the  blast,  as  to  cause  it  to  melt 
rapidly.  The  fire  is  constantly  fed  with  fresh  coal. 
Water  on  the  coal  is  to  be  avoided.  At  this  stage 
of  the  process,  all  the  blast  is  given  which  the  bel- 
lows will  make ;  for  the  fire  cannot  be  too  hot ;  the 
iron  must  become  perfectly  liquid  before  it  reaches 
the  bottom.  If  the  iron  is  grey,  and  the  trial  by 
crowbar  shows  it  to  be  thin,  the  blast  may  be  slack- 
ened ;  but  if  it  is  not  quite  grey,  and  there  should 


GERMAN    STEEL.  107 

be  any  doubt  as  to  its  fusibility,  the  blast  may  be 
urged  on. 

The  iron  in  this  condition  is  stirred  by  means 
of  a  small  crowbar ;  but  as  soon  as  it  assumes  a  thick, 
paste-like  appearance,  a  second  piece  of  cast-iron,  of 
say  thirty  pounds  in  weight,  should  be  rapidly  melted 
in ;  this  will  make  the  iron  in  the  bottom  quite  fluid 
again,  even  if  it  has  become  chilled  or  stiff.  The 
working  in  the  bottom  is  now  continued  until  the 
iron  becomes  pasty,  or  stiff;  and  if  it  works  too 
slowly,  some  fine  iron  scraps,  which  have  been  pre- 
viously heated  above  the  tuyere,  may  be  added.  The 
cinder  in  the  bottom,  if  there  should  be  any,  is  to  be 
let  out  each  time  the  mass  feels  stiff,  and  is  ready  for 
another  melting ;  there  is  no  necessity  for  cinder  in 
the  bottom  at  this  period  of  the  process. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  metal  in  the  bottom 
does  not  harden,  and  assume  the  appearance  of 
wrought-iron,  as  in  such  case  the  stones  are  injured, 
and  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  make  steel.  Should 
this  hardening  take  place,  the  fire  must  be  strenu- 
ously urged  by  the  blast,  and  another  portion  of  pig- 
iron,  of  thirty  or  fifty  pounds  in  weight,  melted  down. 
Each  addition  of  pig-iron  is  intended  and  expected 
to  make  the  whole  mass  in  the  bottom  liquid  again ; 
if  it  does  not,  there  is  something  wrong. 
10 


108  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

Grey  pig-iron,  after  having  melted  and  reached  the 
bottom,  is  inclined  to  boil  upon  the  slightest  stirring. 
If  it  contains  much  carbon,  there  is  no  harm  done  by 
a  little  boiling ;  but  if  the  crude  iron  is  mottled,  it 
is  advisable  to  avoid  the  ebullition  of  the  fluid  mass. 
Boiling  may  be  prevented  or  stopped  by  an  increase 
of  heat  and  a  suspension  of  work,  and  also  by  keep- 
ing the  bottom  free  from  slag,  or  cinder.  Iron 
which  is  inclined  to  boil  should  be  melted  by  day- 
light, and  the  bottom  kept  clear  of  cinder.  During 
the  melting,  the  blast  must  be  kept  off  its  surface. 
Some  stirring  in  the  hot  mass  is  always  necessary,  in 
order  to  bring  it  to  a  uniform  quality.  The  pig-iron 
is  melted  in  successive  portions,  until  the  whole  of  it 
is  down.  The  last  or  two  last  melts  do  not  generally 
restore  the  whole  of  the  steel  cake  in  the  bottom  of 
the  hearth  to  a  fluid  state ;  they  are  apt  to  cut  into 
the  centre,  and  spread  over  the  surface  of  it.  This 
should  be  avoided  by  all  means ;  for  the  raw  iron  will 
penetrate  between  the  bottom  and  the  mass  of  steel, 
forming  new  cast-iron  in  the  lower  part,  and  wrought- 
iron  of  the  upper  part  of  the  loup.  The  rule  to  be 
strictly  adhered  to  in  working  the  fire  is,  to  melt  the 
crude  iron  down  in  small  portions,  and  let  the  next 
melt  always  cover  the  cake ;  otherwise  the  blast  will 
convert  into  wrought-iron  those  portions  which  are 


GERMAN    STEEL.  109 

uncovered.  The  last  melts  of  pig-iron  are  performed 
as  quickly  as  possible,  under  the  influence  of  a  strong 
blast ;  for  if  the  steel  cake  is  exposed  too  long  to  the 
blast,  most  of  it  will  be  converted  into  iron.  It  de- 
pends very  much  on  the  dexterity  of  the  workman 
whether,  of  the  same  materials,  he  makes  good  steel, 
inferior  steel,  or  iron.  Low  heat  and  slow  work 
invariably  make  fibrous  or  hard  cold-short  iron ;  too 
great  heat  and  too  much  blast  generally  make  a  very 
hard,  but  brittle  steel.  All  water,  cold  or  wet  bars, 
damp  coal,  and  slag  to  accelerate  the  process,  are  to 
be  avoided  if  a  good  steel  is  desired. 

The  termination  of  the  process  is  shown  when  the 
surface  of  the  cake  begins  to  give  indications  of  con 
version.  The  surface  is  then  scraped  off  the  cake 
with  a  crowbar,  and  held  before  the  tuyere.  If  it 
resists  a  high  welding  heat,  it  is  time  to  stop  the 
blast. 

Hot  steel  is  always  of  a  darker  colour  than  fibrous 
iron  in  the  same  heat ;  and  an  experienced  workman 
can  perceive,  by  this  difference,  when  the  cake  is 
ready.  If  the  scale  scraped  off  the  cake  melts  be- 
fore the  hot  fire  at  the  tuyere,  it  is  evident  that  the 
mass  is  not  yet  done ;  the  scale  must  neither  melt, 
burn,  nor  turn  white,  like  iron.  The  cake,  when  well 
done,  feels  slippery  to  the  touch  of  a  bar ;  if  it  feels 


110  MANUFACTURE     OF    STEEL. 

soft,  it  is  not  yet  ready ;  and  if  it  feels  rough,  it  is 
time  to  stop  the  blast,  as  that  roughness  is  an  indica- 
tion that  the  mass  is  about  to  be  converted  into  iron. 
After  stopping  the  blast,  coal  and  coal-dust  are  re- 
moved to  the  hearth  by  a  scraper,  the  steel  cake 
cleared  of  cinder  and  dust,  and  then  permitted  to 
remain  for  a  while  to  cool,  before  it  is  taken  out. 
When  red-hot  yet,  or  so  far  cooled  as  to  be  strong 
enough  to  be  lifted  without  breaking,  a  sharp  flat 
crowbar  is  driven  through  the  tap-hole  in  the  timp- 
plate,  and  the  cake  is  lifted  off  the  bottom.  Should 
it  adhere  to  the  bottom,  or  to  the  tuyere-plate,  as 
will  sometimes  happen,  the  crowbar  is  driven  in  by 
the  force  of  a  sledge-hammer. 

THE    CAKE 

Is  almost  of  a  round  form ;  it  is  brought  to  the 
tilt,  and  cut  into  six  or  eight  segments,  which 
are  of  course  in  the  form  of  a  triangle.  It  is  natural 
to  expect  that  the  circumference  of  the  cake  will  be 
more  of  the  nature  of  iron  than  of  steel,  and  the  in- 
ternal part  inclines  more  to  cast-iron  than  to  either 
steel  or  fibrous  iron.  The  triangles,  whose  base  is 
formed  by  the  periphery  of  the  cake,  and  which  are 
drawn  out  into  square  or  flat  bars  while  the  melting 


GERMAN    STEEL.  Ill 

of  crude  iron  is  going  on,  make  bars  whose  ends  are 
inclined,  the  one  to  wrought-iron,  and  the  other  to 
cast-iron,  while  the  middle  portion  is  the  best  part 
of  the  steel.  These  bars  are  generally  forged  into  a 
square  form,  if  uniformly  hard  steel  is  required ;  if 
spring-steel  is  the  object,  flat  bars  may  be  preferable. 
As  soon  as  the  bars  are  drawn,  they  are  thrown  into 
cold  water,  to  be  chilled  and  afterwards  broken. 
This  hardening  of  the  crude  steel  is  by  some  per- 
sons thought  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  observing 
the  fracture,  and  classifying  the  steel  accordingly. 
But  it  is  not  strictly  necessary,  and  is  certainly  very 
injurious  to  the  steel,  particularly  if  it  should  be  de- 
ficient in  carbon.  A  far  better  method  is,  to  cut  or 
shear  the  bar  of  crude  steel  into  three  lengths,  and 
call  these  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  steel.  A  good  forgeman 
knows  perfectly  well,  while  he  is  drawing  the  bars, 
whether  he  has  fibrous  iron,  cold-short  iron,  or  steel. 
The  hammer-man's  judgment  is  sufficient,  and  the 
danger  of  hardening  the  bars  may  and  should  be 
avoided. 

When  the  cake  is  permitted  to  get  too  hard,  before 
another  portion  of  pig-iron  is  melted  in,  by  scraps  or 
by  blast,  no  steel  can  be  expected ;  the  cake  will  con- 
sist* principally  of  iron.  If  the  cake  should  be  too 
soft  or  cold  when  a  fresh  melt  comes  down,  cold-short 


112  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

iron  or  bad  steel  is  the  result.  If  the  process  is  not 
conducted  with  the  requisite  experience,  it  may  hap- 
pen that  the  steel  cake  will  be  crude  at  the  seam, 
and  fibrous  in  the  centre. 


EXPENSE    OF    THE    PROCESS. 

The  manufacture  of  steel  in  this  way  is  not  a  very 
cheap  operation.  To  make  a  ton,  from  good  pig- 
iron,  requires  at  least  four  hundred  bushels  of  char- 
coal ;  if  the  iron  should  be  of  an  inferior  quality,  a 
still  greater  consumption  of  coal  is  necessary.  Soft 
charcoal  is  preferable  to  hard  coal  in  this,  as  in  every 
other  part  of  the  process  of  manufacturing  steel. 
The  loss  on  iron  is  seldom  less  than  thirty  or  thirty- 
three  per  cent. ;  the  very  best  pig-iron  never,  under 
any  circumstances,  yields  more  than  seventy-five  per 
cent,  of  crude  steel. 

One  fire,  supplied  with  two  hands,  may  refine  and 
draw,  in  the  course  of  a  week,  from  a  ton  to  a  ton 
and  a  half  of  steel.  The  yield  of  a  fire  may  be  aug- 
mented by  using  wrought-iron  scraps  freely  ;  two,  or 
even  three  tons  per  week,  may  be  thus  produced ; 
but  this  requires  good  pig-iron,  good  scraps,  and  good 
workmen.  Scraps  of  puddled  iron,  no  matter  of 


GERMAN    STEEL.  113 

what  kind,  are  useless ;  they  should  be  of  the  very 
best  and  purest  charcoal  iron,  large  quantities  of 
which  may  be  had  at  the  charcoal  forges,  or  at  the 
gun  factories. 


THE    GERMAN    METHOD 

Of  making  steel  is  to  use  cast-iron  derived  from 
the  smelting  of  carbonate  of  iron,  or  sparry  ore.  We 
cannot  make  steel  in  that  way,  and  are  compelled  to 
use  grey  or  mottled  iron  for  the  purpose.  The  pro- 
cess in  use  in  Sweden  and  Northern  Germany  was 
formerly  practised  in  this  country.  The  art  among 
the  Germans  is  highly  cultivated,  and  is  practised  in 
a  variety  of  forms,  with  a  view  to  vary  the  quality 
and  quantity.  The  processes  are  also,  of  course, 
modified  by  the  peculiarities  of  the  material  and  the 
workmen.  On  account  of  their  many  advantages, 
the  Germans  are  enabled  to  make  cheaper  natural 
steel  than  we  can.  It  is  not  of  much  use  to  describe 
their  manipulation,  for  we  can  neither  imitate  nor 
improve  upon  it ;  and  to  describe  it  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  principle,  would  be  a  waste 
of  time. 

The  heavy  expenses  attending  the  manufacture  of 


114  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

steel  have  given  rise  to  numerous  attempts  at  im- 
provement ;  but,  thus  far,  very  little  has  been  accom- 
plished. The  necessity  of  using  a  stone  bottom,  and 
the  further  necessity  of  cooling  the  fire  almost  every 
day  to  put  in  a  new  bottom,  are  great  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  cheapness ;  and  frequent  schemes  have 
been  devised  to  avoid  them,  but  in  vain.  In  those 
countries  where  iron  or  coal  bottoms  are  used,  as  in 
Styria  and  Carinthia,  the  work  is  carried  on  only  in 
the  day-time.  This  certainly  involves  a  great  ex- 
pense in  coal  and  labour,  but  it  seems  to  be  necessary 
and  unavoidable.  If  the  manufacture  of  natural 
steel  could  be  carried  on  without  intermission,  by  day 
and  night,  as  is  the  operation  of  making  iron,  it  cer- 
tainly would  not  cost  any  more  to  manufacture  the 
former  than  the  latter  metal  —  perhaps  even  less. 
To  the  accomplishment  of  this  end,  however,  there 
seem  to  be  at  present  insuperable  obstacles ;  and  we 
must  trust  to  time  and  further  experience  to  simplify 
and  cheapen  the  process. 


GERMAN    STEEL.  115 


MAKING   STEEL   IN   A   PUDDLING   FURNACE. 

Some  years  ago  we  noticed  a  process  of  making 
steel  in  a  puddling  furnace ;  it  was  made  of  very  good 
steel-iron,  puddled  by  dry  wood.  The  product  looked 
like  steel;  but  it  was  no  more  steel  than  strong  cold- 
short iron  ever  will  be.  In  the  following  pages  we 
shall  endeavour  to  show  that  any  use  of  the  puddling 
furnace  in  making  steel  is  wrong  in  the  principle ; 
good  steel  can  never  be  made  in  that  way,  or  by  any 
such  means. 


REFINING    OF    STEEL. 

Natural  steel  obtained  in  the  way  described  is  not 
marketable,  or  ready  for  use.  Before  it  is  exposed 
to  sale,  it  is  refined  or  tilted ;  the  bars,  either  flat  or 
square,  as  they  come  from  the  forge,  are  sent  to  the 
tilt.  This  consists  of  a  force-hammer,  or  hammers, 
of  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
in  weight,  and  a  series  of  forge-fires.  A  forge-fire 
is  similar  to  a  common  blacksmith's  forge,  and  the 
refining  is  done  by  bituminous  or  mineral  coal.  It 
is  also  sometimes  done  by  charcoal ;  but  mineral  coal 
is  preferred. 


116  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

The  steel  to  be  refined  is  broken  into  convenient 
lengths  of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches,  and  piled  or 
fagoted  so  as  to  make  a  fagot  of  fifty  pounds.  The 
bottom  and  top  of  the  pile  are  to  be  in  one  length ; 
the  interior  may  be  composed  of  short  pieces.  A 
fagot  is  taken  in  a  pair  of  strong  basket-tongs,  and 
heated  in  a  fire  to  redness ;  if  it  is  found  to  be  open, 
the  red-hot  pile  is  gently  pressed  together  by  a  hand- 
hammer.  When  close,  it  is  taken  to  another  fire, 
where  it  receives  the  welding  heat.  Before  and  dur- 
ing its  exposure  to  the  welding  heat,  the  pile  is 
sprinkled  over  with  burnt  and  finely-ground  clay, 
partly  to  protect  it  against  the  blast,  and  partly  to 
remove  the  dry  film  of  scales,  which  are  generally 
more  refractory  on  steel  than  on  iron.  When  suffi- 
ciently heated  at  one  end,  the  fagot  is  brought  to  the 
hammer,  and  that  end  is  welded.  The  tongs  are  now 
fastened  to  the  welded  end,  which  is  generally  drawn 
down  to  one  and  a  quarter  or  one  and  a  half  inch 
square,  and  the  other  end  of  the  fagot  brought  into 
the  fire,  welded,  and  drawn. 

If  the  steel  is  to  be  refined  again,  the  bar  is  cut 
into  two  or  more  pieces,  and  again  welded  and  drawn 
out.  This  process  is  repeated,  or  may  be  repeated, 
four  or  five  times  in  succession  ;  and  the  steel  is  then 
called  two,  three,  or  five  times  refined  steel. 


GERMAN    SIEEL.  117 


THE    REFINING    FIRES 

Are  not  different  from  a  common  smith's  forge, 
except  that  they  are  larger  and  lower.  Where  char- 
coal is  used,  and  of  course  where  anthracite  is  to  be 
used,  the  fire  is  provided  with  a  long  arch  of  fire- 
brick, of  about  two  feet  span,  and  one  foot  high 
above  the  tuyere.  Bituminous  coal,  which  contains 
so  much  bitumen  as  to  cake,  forms  an  arch  over  the 
fire  by  itself,  and  a  brick  arch  is  therefore  unneces- 
sary. No  injury  to  the  steel  need  be  apprehended 
from  the  use  of  any  of  the  varieties  of  fuel  we  have 
named ;  still,  it  is  advisable  to  drive  off  the  bitumen 
of  the  mineral  coal  before  any  steel  is  brought  into 
contact  with  it.  These  fires  are  frequently  provided 
with  two  or  three  tuyeres  in  a  horizontal  line,  to 
make  a  continuous  fire  for  long  fagots. 

The  refiner,  or  tilter,  can  accomplish  a  great  deal 
in  making  the  steel  uniform ;  but  he  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  improve  a  defective  quality  of  material. 
By  making  the  bars  small  and  flat,  and  assorting 
them  well,  a  superior  article  may  be  made  of  good 
raw  steel.  A  great  deal  depends  upon  piling  the 
bars  and  forming  the  fagot.  The  labourer  who  per- 
forms that  work  should  understand  the  nature  of  the 


118  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

steel  by  its  fracture,  and  pile  accordingly.  Hard 
steel  should  be  piled  next  to  that  which  is  soft,  and 
inferior  steel  between  that  which  is  of  a  better  qua- 
lity. Notwithstanding  all  the  attention  we  give  it, 
it  is  impossible  to  make  a  bar  uniform  in  itself,  and 
uniform  with  another.  We  not  unfrequently  find 
spring-steel,  shear-steel,  mill-steel,  mint-steel,  and 
other  varieties,  in  the  same  bar.  The  bars  are  there- 
fore all  thrown  in  cold  water,  hardened  and  broken, 
and,  according  to  the  fracture,  assorted  for  market, 
where  it  is  known  under  different  brands,  or  signs, 
which  are  burned  upon  the  kegs  in  which  it  is  trans- 
ported. 

The  steel  made  in  this  way  is  certainly  far  from 
being  perfect ;  but  still,  for  the  manufacture  of  some 
articles,  it  is  admirably  suited,  and  is  even  superior, 
for  such  purposes,  to  the  best  cast-steel.  For 
instance,  swords  are  made  of  it  which  cannot  be 
imitated  by  a  prime  article  of  cast  or  shear-steel. 
For  almost  all  other  manufactures,  however,  this 
natural  steel  is  inferior  to  good  shear  or  cast-steel, 
on  account  of  its  irregularity.  This  irregularity  has 
given  rise  to  many  attempts  at  improvement,  and 
the  steel  has  been  re-melted,  in  the  hope  of  convert- 
ing it  into  cast-steel ;  but  it  is  of  so  refractory  a 
nature,  that  the  best  crucible  will  not  melt  it,  at 


GERMAN    STEEL.  119 

least  not  to  advantage.  An  attempt  has  also  been 
made  to  use  this  natural  steel,  instead  of  iron,  for 
cementing  in  the  converting  furnace ;  but  the  expe- 
riment was  not  fully  successful  —  the  steel  was  found 
to  be  inferior,  for  that  purpose,  to  good  soft  iron. 
11 


120  MANUFACTURE    OP    STEEL. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  MAKING  STEEL. 
BLISTERED    STEEL. 

THE  amount  of  steel  annually  manufactured  in 
England  is  twenty-five  thousand  tons ;  one-half  of 
the  iron  consumed  in  this  manufacture  is  imported 
from  Sweden  and  other  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  while  the  remainder  is  obtained  at  their  own 
charcoal  forges.  The  best  steel  is  made  of  Swedish 
Danemora  iron ;  but  not  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen 
hundred  tons  of  this  iron  are  imported,  as  its  price 
ranges  above  one  hundred  and  eighty  dollars  per  ton. 
The  remainder  of  the  foreign  iron  used  is  common 
Swedish,  Norwegian,  Russian,  German  and  Madras 
iron.  It  is  generally  in  the  form  of  hoops,  or  bars, 
of  a  half  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  from 
two  to  four  inches  wide.  We  shall  now  proceed  to 
describe  the  making  of  steel  in  Sheffield. 


BLISTERED    STEEL. 


121 


The  first  operation  in  this  branch  of  the  manufac- 
ture is  to  range  the  iron  bars  in  the  "  converting  fur- 
nace." In  fig.  22  is  a  section  vertically  through  the 
chimney,  representing  the  cementation  boxes,  fire- 
grate, and  the  arch  over  the  boxes.  Fig.  23  is  a 

Fig.  22. 


horizontal  section  of  the  boxes  and  flues.  In  each, 
the  same  references  show  the  same  objects.  The 
whole  of  the  converting  furnace  has  the  appearance 
of  a  glasshouse.  The  grate,  A,  divides  the  interior 
of  the  furnace  into  two  equal  parts,  each  containing 
a  cementation  box.  There  are  some  furnaces  which 


122  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

have  but  one  box ;  but  they  are  not  found  so  advan- 
tageous as  double  furnaces,  owing  to  their  greater  con- 
sumption of  fuel.  The  fire-grate,  A,  is  over  the 
whole  length  of  the  furnace ;  but  its  breadth  varies 
according  to  the  fuel  used — inferior  fuel  requiring  a 
greater  breadth  than  that  of  a  better  quality.  The 
object  here  is  not  so  much  the  intensity  as  the  bulk 
of  the  heat ;  and  it  is  accomplished  by  the  slow  con- 
sumption of  a  heavy  body  of  fuel.  A  grate  of  two 
feet  in  width  for  bituminous,  and  three  for  anthracite 
coal,  may  be  considered  as  sufficient.  The  fire  passes 
entirely  around  the  cement-boxes,  BB,  and  finally 
escapes  at  C,  where  a  succession  of  draft-holes  is 
left  in  the  arch.  These  draft-holes  are  so  arranged 
as  to  admit  of  being  either  partially  or  entirely  shut. 
In  case  the  heat  is  stronger  on  one  end  than  at  the 
other,  it  is  to  be  regulated  by  pening  or  closing 
these  flues.  If  the  heat  should  be  found  too  great 
towards  the  close  of  the  operation,  it  may  of  course 
be  promptly  regulated  in  the  same  manner.  The 
flues  between  the  boxes  are  six  by  eighteen,  and  the 
others  six  by  eight  inches.  The  firing  is  done  at 
both  small  ends  of  the  furnace;  for  the  grate  is 
long,  and  cannot  be  conveniently  reached  from  one 
side.  At  one  of  the  smaller  ends  of  the  furnace  are 
two  small  orifices,  DD,  for  drawing  out  the  proof- 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  123 

bars.  On  the  same  side  with  the  proof  or  tap-holes, 
which  serve  also  as  charging-doors,  is  the  door  F, 
through  which  the  workman  enters  in  filling  and 
emptying  the  cementation-boxes.  In  many  furnaces 
there  are,  besides  the  above  apertures,  two  doors  for 
the  charging  and  discharging  of  the  steel ;  these  are 
above  the  troughs. 

The  external  dimensions  of  the  conversion  furnace 
are  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet  in  width,  by  twenty-four 
feet  long ;  and  the  conical  chimney  is  from  forty  to 
fifty  feet  high.  The  exterior  or  rough  wall  is  built 
of  common  brick,  or  stone ;  the  interior,  of  fire-brick. 
In  case  the  walls  cannot  be  supported  by  heavy  ma- 
sonry on  the  outside,  the  furnaces  are  to  be  kept 
together  by  wrought-iron  binders.  The  first  plan  is, 
however,  the  best  of  the  two.  The  fire-brick  arch, 
or  top  of  the  interior  of  the  furnace,  is  as  flat  as 
possible — just  high  enough  to  admit  the  steel-maker. 
Heavy  walls  and  brick-work  are  of  advantage  in  the 
converting  operation. 


124  MANUFACTUEE     OF     STEEL, 


THE    TWO    CHESTS, 

Or  cementing-boxes,  are  in  most  cases  twenty  feet 
long  each,  though  sometimes  they  are  but  ten  or  fif- 
teen feet  in  length.  They  are  occasionally  three  feet 
high,  and  of  the  same  width ;  but  this  is  a  disadvan- 
tage, as  it  requires  an  unusually  attentive  and  skilful 
workman  to  manage  such  large  chests.  The  lower 
and  smaller  they  are,  the  easier  is  the  work,  and  the 
more  uniform  is  the  quality  of  the  steel.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  a  proportionately  greater  con- 
sumption of  coal  in  small  than  in  large  boxes. 

The  boxes  are  made  of  sandstone  slabs,  the  joints 
of  which  rest  upon,  and  are  covered  by,  the  tongues 
which  form  the  flues.  These  slabs  are  of  tabular 
sandstone,  which  naturally  exfoliates  or  splits  into 
thicknesses  of  one  or  two  inches  —  the  proper  size 
for  the  slabs.  These  should  be  in  one  way  as  high 
as  the  intended  height  of  the  box,  or  as  wide  as  the 
bottom  ;  the  other  dimension  is  less  definite,  and  may 
be  arranged  so  as  to  have  the  joints  properly  covered. 
The  tongues  which  form  the  flues  are  small,  and  take 
as  little  off  the  heating  surface  as  possible,  merely 
sufficient  to  secure  the  permanency  of  the  box.  A 
new  box  is  heated  very  gently  for  the  first  few  days, 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  125 

so  as  to  produce  the  gradual  expulsion  of  the  water 
of  the  stones ;  the  heat  should  not  be  higher  than 
the  boiling-heat  of  water.  The  slabs  are  cemented 
together  by  fire-clay ;  in  fact,  the  joints  of  the  whole 
interior  are  so  united.  Small  boxes  are  often  set 
without  heads ;  but  it  is  preferable  to  have  flues  on 
both  ends,  as  well  as  along  the  sides. 

CHARGING    OP    THE    BOXES. 

The  boxes  are  charged  with  iron  in  the  following 
manner :  On  the  bottom  of  each  trough  is  placed  a 
layer  of  coarsely-powdered  charcoal,  about  two  inches 
thick.  Upon  this  layer  of  charcoal,  or  cement,  a 
layer  of  iron  bars  is  laid  edgwise,  leaving  a  space  of 
an  inch  at  each  side,  and  also  between  each  bar  a 
space  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  bar.  The  bars 
are  to  be  within  a  couple  of  inches  of  the  length  of 
the  box ;  but  in  case  they  are  too  short,  small  pieces 
may  be  used  to  make  them  of  the  requisite  length. 
Above  the  first  layer  of  iron,  a  layer  of  cement  is 
spread,  of  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  upon  this  another  layer  of  bars  \uth  spaces,  as 
in  the  first  layer.  The  spaces  between  the  bars  are 
closely  filled-in  with  charcoal  powder,  or  cement; 
care  must  be  exercised  to  have  every  crevice  well 


126  MANUFACTURE     OF    STEEL. 

filled  with  cement.  The  bars  arc  never  allowed  to 
touch  each  other  or  the  trough.  The  boxes  are  filled 
to  within  six  inches  of  the  top,  and  this  space  is  filled 
with  the  refuse  cement  of  former  operations.  Finally, 
a  layer  of  fine  sand  or  mud  is  spread  over  this  last 
cement.  The  material  used  for  this  purpose  in  Shef- 
field consists  of  the  sand  worn  off  of  grindstones, 
which  is  a  mixture  of  particles  of  iron,  fine  quartz, 
and  a  little  clay  or  lime.  This  is  called  in  Sheffield 
"wheelswarf,"  and  makes  a  very  close  and  compact 
cement,  almost  impervious  to  water  and  air. 


THE    CEMENT 

Consists  of  ground  charcoal,  made  from  hard  wood, 
sometimes  mixed  with  soot,  or  of  soot  only.  This 
charcoal  powder  is  intimately  mixed  with  one-eighth 
or  one-tenth  of  its  weight  of  wood-ashes,  and  a  little 
common  salt.  Good  steel  is  made  without  ashes  or 
salt,  by  using  simply  charcoal  powder ;  but  the  gene- 
ral practice  is  to  use  a  cement  of  the  kind  above 
described. 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  127 


WORKING    OF    A    CONVERTING    FURNACE. 

When  the  boxes  are  well  packed  and  covered,  fire 
is  kindled,  and  very  gradually  raised.  For  the  first 
twenty-four  hours  the  heat  is  merely  sufficient  to  ex- 
pel the  moisture  in  the  boxes,  cement,  and  cover.  A 
rapid  heat  will  injure  the  stone  slabs  or  bricks  of 
which  the  chests  are  made.  The  fire  is  gradually 
increased  so  as  to  raise  the  heat  a  little  every  day; 
and  at  the  end  of  six  days,  if  it  is  designed  to  make 
spring-steel,  the  bars  are  ready  to  be  drawn.  Shear- 
steel  requires  eight  days,  and  cast-steel  from  ten  to 
twelve  days,  to  be  sufficiently  cemented,  or  carbon- 
ized. Two  days,  and  often  a  much  longer  time,  are 
required  to  cool  the  furnace ;  after  which  the  work- 
men enter  it  and  discharge  the  steel  bars.  Twelve 
tons  of  steel  are  generally  made  in  a  double  furnace. 
In  a  single  furnace,  or  where  there  is  but  one  chest, 
only  six  or  eight  tons  are  made  at  a  time.  For 
the  purpose  of  enabling  the  workmen  to  charge  and 
discharge  the  chests,  iron  plates  are  laid  over  the 
fire-brick  arches,  on  which  they  stand. 


128  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


THE    DEGREE    OF    CEMENTATION 

Is  a  nice  point  to  determine,  and  cannot  be  de- 
cided by  the  length  of  time  for  which  the  iron  has 
been  exposed  to  the  cementing  process;  practice 
must  be  had,  and  is  always  depended  upon  in  well- 
regulated  establishments.  Experience  teaches  us 
that  steel  for  coach-springs  requires  a  low  degree 
of  conversion ;  after  this  comes  blistered  steel  for 
common  use ;  then,  shear-steel,  steel  for  cutlery,  and 
steel  for  files.  Cast-steel  requires  a  higher  degree 
of  conversion  than  any  other.  Some  steel,  such  as 
cast-steel  for  bits,  is  frequently  returned  to  the  box 
two  or  three  times,  and  is  then  called  twice  or 
thrice-converted  steel.  The  point  where  to  stop 
cementation  is  decided  by  the  steel-maker  in  draw- 
ing and  trying  the  trial-rod,  or  rods.  The  trial- 
rods  are  somewhat  longer  than  the  others ;  they 
reach  at  one  end  through  the  thickness  of  the  slabs 
of  which  the  chest  is  formed,  and  may  be  drawn  out 
from  between  the  other  bars  by  a  pair  of  tongs. 
The  bar  itself  may  be  but  three  or  four  feet  long. 
The  trial-holes,  marked  in  the  cuts  D  D,  are  called 
"tap-holes;"  they  are  but  a  few  inches  wide,  and  are 
closed  around  the  trial-rods  by  clay  or  wheelswharf ; 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  129 

they  are  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  chest.  An,  ex- 
perienced steel-maker  uses  but  one  trial-rod,  though 
some  persons  think  it  necessary  to  have  two  or  three 
bars.  If  a  trial-rod  has  been  once  drawn,  it  cannot 
be  returned  to  the  box ;  it  is  then  broken,  and  from 
its  appearance  on  fracture  the  quality  of  the  steel  is 
adjudged.  The  fire  is  cautiously  kept  so  low,  that 
the  highly  converted  steel  at  the  bottom  of  the  box 
does  not  melt.  If  it  happens  that  it  does  melt  in  the 
box,  it  is  generally  converted  into  cast-iron,  and  is 
useless  for  steel.  The  success  of  this  converting 
operation  depends,  therefore,  in  a  great  measure, 
indeed  almost  entirely,  on  the  knowledge  and  saga- 
city  of  the  steel-maker.  On  his  care  and  judgment 
the  avoidance  of  losses  mainly  depends.  Too  much 
stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  this  point. 


GAIN    IN    WEIGHT. 

The  bars  in  the  process  of  conversion  gain  about  a 
half  to  three-fourths  of  one  per  cent,  in  weight.  They 
are  entirely  covered  with  blisters,  whence  the  name 
"blistered  steel"  is  derived.  The  steel  is  very  irre- 
gular in  the  different  layers  of  the  box,  as  also  in 
each  bar.  The  fracture  of  a  bar  is  very  crystalline, 


130  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

its  colour  a  bright  silvery  white,  and  the  tables  of 
the  crystals  are  lustrous  like  brilliants.  The  central 
crystals  are  always  smaller  than  those  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  bar. 


TILTING. 

Blistered  steel  is  hardly  fit  for  any  purpose,  no 
matter  how  simple  or  coarse  the  article  made  of  it 
may  be.  Its  blisters  and  fissures  make  it  unfit  for 
the  manufacture  of  tools,  until  it  is  re-heated  and 
tilted.  The  first  operation  of  this  kind  of  refining 
makes  common  steel;  the  second  makes  shear-steel, 
and  steel  for  cutlery.  Very  little  steel  is  exposed  to 
three  welding-heats,  as  each  heat  adds  to  its  tenacity 
and  strength,  but,  if  carried  too  far,  will  reduce 
some  of  it  to  iron. 

THE    REFINING    FIRES 

Are  like  a  blacksmith's  forge-hearth ;  the  fire  is, 
however,  of  a  larger  size.  Soft  or  bituminous  coal 
is  used  for  welding  the  bundles  of  steel.  This  coal 
is  converted  into  a  coke,  and  forms  an  arch  over  the 
fire,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  bakeoven.  Neither 
charcoal  nor  anthracite  has  this  effect. 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  131 

The  forge-fires  are  supplied  with  air  by  cylinder 
blast-machines,  or  by  common  bellows,  placed  above 
the  head,  and  worked  by  a  crank  which  is  driven 
either  by  water  or  steam-power.  The  air  is  conveyed 
in  copper  or  tin  pipes  to  the  tuyere.  The  blistered 
steel  is  cut  or  broken  into  lengths  of  twelve  or  eigh- 
teen inches,  and  four  of  such  lengths  are  piled  along 
with  a  fifth  of  double  length.  This  longer  bar  is 
placed  in  the  middle,  between  the  others,  and  forms 
the  handle  to  the  pile.  This  pile,  or  fagot,  is  held 
together  by  being  bound  with  a  small  steel  rod.  It 
is  carried  to  the  fire,  and  a  good  welding  heat  given 
to  it.  While  in  the  fire,  it  is  occasionally  sprinkled 
with  sand,  to  form  a  protecting  slag  against  the  im- 
purities of  the  coal.  The  fagot,  when  of  a  cherry- 
red  heat,  is  carried  from  the  fire  to  the  tilt,  and 
notched  down  —  that  is,  hammered  down  in  a  rough 
manner — so  as  to  unite  the  bars  together,  and  close 
up  every  internal  flaw  and  fissure. 

In  the  first  heat,  the  fagot  is  merely  welded  in  a 
rough  manner ;  after  which  the  bindings  are  knocked 
off,  and  the  pile  is  again  re-heated.  In  the  second 
heat,  the  welded  bars  are  drawn  out  into  a  uniform 
rod  of  the  thickness  required,  which  is  generally  an 
inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  square,  and  twice  or  three 
times  the  length  of  the  original  fagot.  The  bars  of 
12 


132  MANUFACT0RE     OF    STEEL. 

the  first  heat,  which  are  common  steel,  are  piled 
again  to  form  shear-steel.  Five  or  six  of  such  bars 
are  piled  and  held  together  by  a  slender  band  of  steel, 
as  before,  when  they  are  once  more  exposed  to  a 
welding  heat  in  the  first  forge-fire,  and  welded  imper- 
fectly, or  soaked,  to  cement  the  bars  together.  This 
fagot,  which  also  is  supplied  with  a  long  bar  for  a 
handle,  is  then  carried  to  a  larger  fire,  in  which  it 
receives  a  thorough  welding  heat,  and  is  then  tilted 
at  the  heaviest  hammer  of  the  establishment,  called 
the  "shear-hammer."  In  this  heat  a  bar  of  two  or 
two  and  a  half  inches  square  is  drawn  out ;  and  if 
steel  of  more  than  two  heats,  or  "  double  shear,"  is 
required,  it  is  cut  in  two,  doubled,  welded  together, 
and  drawn  out  again. 

Blistered  steel,  repeatedly  re-heated  and  drawn 
out,  assumes  a  very  uniform,  fine  grain ;  it  loses  all 
its  flaws,  fissures  and  blisters,  and  is  by  far  more 
tenacious  than  any  other  steel ;  it  is  also  less  affected 
by  heat  than  cast-steel.  When  rendered  compact  by 
welding  and  hammering,  this  steel  is  also  susceptible 
of  a  very  fine  polish,  in  which  respect  it  is  but  little 
inferior  to  cast-steel.  It  is  therefore  a  superior  steel 
for  cutlery,  and  unites  a  fine,  close  texture,  with  great 
tenacity. 

Shear-steel  has  not  derived  its  name  from  beim» 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  133 

particularly  useful  in  making  scissors.  In  days  gone 
by,  there  were  a  large  kind  of  shears  in  use  for  dress- 
ing woollen  cloth ;  they  were  formed  like  those  in 
use  for  shearing  sheep,  being  four  or  five  feet  long, 
with  blades  of  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  in  length,  by 
eight  to  twelve  inches  wide.  The  refined  blistered 
steel  was  particularly  adapted  to  make  the  edge  and 
spring  of  these  shears. 

THE    TILTS, 

Or  hammers,  are  very  much  the  same  as  those  de- 
•  scribed  in  the  last  chapter  for  tilting  natural  steel. 
The  heaviest  hammer — the  shear-hammer — varies 
in  weight  from  two  hundred  to  four  hundred  pounds. 
In  Sheffield,  the  principal  and  cheapest  mart  for  the 
manufacture  of  steel,  the  hammers  are  driven  by  a 
small  water-wheel,  upon  whose  prolonged  axis  are 
one  or  more  iron  rings,  which  contain  the  wipers,  or 
cams.  In  the  periphery  of  the  cam-ring,  or  wiper 
wheel,  there  are  from  twelve  to  eighteen  cams,  which 
strike  the  tail  of  the  hammer  in  rapid  succession,,  by 
which  the  hammer-head  is  raised  and  suffered  to  fall 
on  the  steel.  To  increase  the  effect  of  the  hammer, 
a  spring  is  placed  under  its  tail,  so  as  to  work  the 
hammer  partly  by  weight,  and  partly  by  recoil. 


134  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

Large  tilts  make  two  hundred,  smaller  ones  four  hun- 
dred, strokes  per  minute.  The  majority  of  the  ham- 
mer frames  in  Sheffield  are  of  wood,  which  in  fact  is 
the  most  suitable  material  for  tilts.  In  some  estab- 
lishments, more  than  one  hammer  is  on  one  wheel- 
shaft.  The  anvils  are  placed  upon  a  stone  founda- 
tion, and  these  stones  upon  a  grate  of  wood-piles. 
The  surface  of  the  anvils  is  almost  level  with  the 
floor  of  the  tilt-house,  and  the  workman  sits  down  in  a 
fosse,  or  pit,  with  his  face  towards  the  hammer.  The 
smaller  rods  are  tilted  sitting,  the  larger  ones  stand- 
ing. At  the  lighter  tilts,  the  hammer-man  or  tilter 
sits  on  a  swinging  seat,  suspended  from  the  roof  of 
the  building.  While  thus  suspended,  he  takes  one 
end  of  the  bundle  of  rods  between  his  legs,  and  by 
the  motion  of  his  body  gives  to  the  rods  a  rapid  back- 
ward and  forward  motion  under  the  hammer.  Each 
tilter  has  two  boys  in  attendance,  to  furnish  him 
with  hot  rods,  and  take  away  those  which  are  suffi- 
ciently hammered.  The  rods  are  heated  to  a  higher 
or  lower  degree,  but,  after  the  welding  is  done,  not 
higher  than  a  cherry-red.  Small  rods  of  good  steel, 
which  very  soon  cool  after  being  brought  upon  the 
anvil,  speedily  become  red  again  under  the  rapid 
blows  of  the  hammer. 

Tilting  is  a  very  important  process  in  the  manu- 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  135 

facture  of  steel ;  and  none  but  very  skilful  and  in- 
dustrious men  will  make  good  hands  at  the  tilt.  In 
fig.  24,  as  will  be  seen  at  a  glance,  a  tilt-house  is 

Fig.  24. 


represented.  The  faces  of  the  hammer-head,  as  well 
as  the  anvil,  are  of  the  best  cast-steel,  well  hardened 
and  polished.  Each  hammer  has  a  blast-pipe  con- 
ducted to  it,  which  ends  in  a  nozzle,  from  which  a 
stream  of  air  is  constantly  blowing  upon  the  anvil,  to 
keep  it  free  from  dust  and  scales.  This  cleanliness 
is  necessary  to  impart  a  good  polish  to  the  steel  bars, 


CAST-STEEL 

Is  made  by  melting  blistered  steel  in  crucibles. 
The  converted  steel  is  broken  into  convenient  pieces 
for  charging  it  in  the  narrowest  space  possible.  A 
portion  of  carbon  is  always  dissipated  in  this  process  ; 
therefore,  the  most  highly  carbonized  bars  of  the  blis- 


136  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

tered  steel  are  selected  to  be  transformed  into  cast- 
steel.  The  highly  converted  steel  is  known  by  its 
larger  crystals  and  brighter  lustre,  in  a  newly-made 
fracture,  than  in  the  other  bars.  These  broken 
pieces  of  blistered  steel  are  charged  in  crucibles  made 
of  the  best  Stourbridge  fire-clay. 


THE    MAKING    OF    CRUCIBLES, 

Or  melting-pots,  is  an  important  branch  in  this 
department  of  the  art.  They  are  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  inches  high,  and  of  a  sugar-loaf  shape.  The 
clay  is,  as  we  have  said,  of  the  best  Stourbridge, 
worked  to  a  high  degree  of  uniformity  and  smooth- 
ness. To  give  it  this  uniformity,  the  clay  is  first 
moistened  with  water,  and  well  puddled ;  it  is  then 
spread  on  a  smooth  floor  underneath  the  casting- 
house,  and  worked  by  bare  feet;  this  requires  the 
uninterrupted  work  of  two  men  for  six  hours.  In 
some  establishments,  the  clay  is  mixed  with  finely- 
pulverized  coke,  or  finely-ground  cement  of  old  cru- 
cibles, or  a  portion  of  black  lead ;  and  sometimes  it 
is  mixed  with  the  whole  of  these  ingredients.  Up 
to  the  present  time,  every  attempt  has  failed  to  sub- 
stitute machinery  for  manual  labour  in  mixing  the 
clay ;  it  would  seem  that  there  is  an  efficacy  in  the 


BLISTERED    STEEL. 


137 


Fig.  25. 


human  hand,  or,  in  this  case,  in  the  foot,  which  no 
machinery  has  been  found  or  can  be  expected  to 
possess. 

The  crucibles  are  moulded 
in  a  cast-iron  mould,  as  in 
fig.  25.  A  is  a  solid  block 
of  wood,  in  which  the  outer 
part  of  the  iron  mould,  B, 
closely  fits,  but  still  so  loose 
as  to  be  easily  lifted  out  of 
its  place.  This  iron  mould 
is  well  bored  out  on  the  turn- 
ing lathe,  and  polished.  The 
core  of  the  mould,  C,  is  also  of  cast-iron,  well  turned. 
It  has  two  guide-pins,  one  above  and  one  below.  In 
the  space  between  the  core  of  the  mould  and  the 
case,  a  lump  of  clay  is  laid  on  the  bottom,  just  suffi- 
cient to  fill  the  space  and  make  a  crucible.  When 
the  proper  size  of  a  lump  has  been  found  by  experi- 
ment, it  is  weighed,  and  its  weight  made  the  standard 
for  future  operations,  thus  securing  uniformity  in  the 
crucibles.  A  dried  and  baked  Sheffield  crucible 
weighs  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds,  and  will 
contain  forty  pounds  of  broken  steel. 

Crucible-making  is  the  most  tedious  and  expensive 
branch  in  the  manufacture  of  cast-steel.     The  best 


138  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

Sheffield  crucibles  do  not  last  longer  than  three  heats, 
or  one  day. 

The  core,  C,  is  pressed  down  upon  the  lumps  of 
clay  in  the  mould,  by  which  they  are  forced  upwards 
and  fill  the  upper  part  of  the  mould.  In  this  way, 
the  lower  portion  of  the  crucible  receives  the  neces- 
sary degree  of  compactness.  The  hole  in  the  bottom 
of  the  crucible,  caused  by  the  guide-pin,  is  stopped 
up  with  clay  before  the  vessel  is  taken  out  of  the 
mould.  When  the  core  is  removed,  and  the  bottom 
hole  stopped,  the  mould,  B,  is  lifted  out  of  the  wood- 
en block,  and  reversed  upon  a  board.  If  the  clay  is 
of  the  right  texture  and  well  worked,  the  withdrawal 
of  the  core  and  the  crucible  is  easy  enough  ;  but  if 
the  clay  is  a  little  too  damp,  it  will  adhere  to  the 
iron,  and  is  with  difficulty  loosened.  If  the  clay 
should  be  too  dry,  on  the  other  hand,  the  crucibles 
are  very  apt  to  crack,  or  to  become  porous.  With 
the  proper  degree  of  moisture,  the  crucibles  are  easily 
removed  from  the  mould.  The  adhesion  of  imper- 
fectly prepared  clay  to  the  mould  may  be  prevented, 
to  some  extent,  by  rubbing  the  mould  with  coke-dust, 
or  laying  sheets  of  paper  or  muslin  in  it ;  but  these 
expedients  are  troublesome, .  and  the  necessity  for 
them  should  be  avoided. 

The  crucibles,  after  being  moulded,  are  placed  in 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  139 

drying-stoves,  where  they  are  slowly  dried  by  a  libe- 
ral access  of  atmospheric  air,  gently  heated.  They 
are  here  dried  hard,  but  not  baked.  The  day  before 
they  are  intended  to  be  used,  the  crucibles  are  set 
upon  an  annealing  grate,  made  of  fire-clay,  where 
they  are  covered  with  the  refuse  coke  from  the  air- 
furnaces  ;  they  are  here  baked,  if  it  can  be  called 
baking,  for  one  day. 


THE    CAST-HOUSE 

Has  a  great  resemblance  to  a  brass  foundry. 
There  are  a  dozen  or  more  air-furnaces  in  one  or  two 
ranges,  their  tops  being  on  a  level  with  the  under- 
mined floor  of  the  building,  as  shown  in  fig.  26.  It 
is  very  convenient  to  have  the  top  of  the  furnaces 
level  with  the  floor,  as  it  gives  the  workman  a  better 
chance  of  lifting  the  crucible  with  the  melted  metal. 
The  ash-pits  are  below  the  floor,  in  a  subterranean 
vaulted  passage,  from  which  the  grates  derive  a  sup- 
ply of  cool  air,  which  favours  the  rapid  combustion 
of  the  fuel.  The  crucibles  are  made  and  dried  in 
these  vaults.  The  pit  of  the  air-furnace  is  a  square 
cavitj  ;  if  intended  but  for  one  crucible,  it  is  twelve 
inches  square  —  if  for  two,  it  is  twelve  by  eighteen 
inches.  The  crucibles  being  six  inches  wide  at  the 


140  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEBL. 

Fig.  20. 


top,  there  is  a  space  of  three  inches  all  around. 
The  depth  of  the  fire-pit,  from  the  top  of  the  grate- 
bars  to  the  floor,  is  twenty-four  or  twenty-six  inches. 
The  flue  leading  from  the  furnace  to  the  stack  is 
three  and  a  half  by  six  inches  in  a  single,  and  three 
and  a  half  by  nine  inches  in  a  double  furnace.  The 
crucible  stands  on  a  sple-piece  of  two  or  three  inches 
high ;  this  may  be  either  a  piece  of  fire-brick,  a  lump 
of  fire-clay,  or  the  bottom  of  an  old  crucible.  The 
in-walls  of  the  furnaces  are  made  originally  of  fire- 
brick, but  are  repaired  wr.th  mud,  taken  from  the 
roads  where  a  certain  kind  of  quartz,  called  "ganis- 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  141 

ter,"  is  used  in  macadamizing.  The  grate-bars  are 
square  bars  of  wrought-iron,  seven-eighths  or  one 
inch  in  thickness,  and  are  loose,  so  as  to  admit  of 
being  pulled  out  if  necessary. 

A  very  hard  shingling  coke  is  used  in  these  fur- 
naces, broken  to  the  size  of  an  egg.  The  grate  is 
supplied  with  air  by  natural  draught,  which  is  very 
strong  in  these  furnaces,  as  there  is  an  almost  verti- 
cal ascent  of  the  burnt  gases. 

A  crucible  full  of  metal  requires  four  hours  for 
melting,  and  three  heats  are  made  in  a  day.  The 
first  operation  is  to  put  the  fresh  crucibles  upon  their 
stand,  and  kindle  a  small  fire  around  them ;  or,  as  is 
generally  the  case,  to  put  the  crucible  upon  its  sole- 
piece  in  the  gently  heated  furnace.  The  crucibles 
are  generally  taken  from  the  annealing  fire,  and, 
while  still  warm,  set  in  the  furnace.  The  heat  upon 
the  crucible  is  gradually  but  slowly  raised,  by  charg- 
ing more  coke,  until  it  assumes  a  white  heat,  which 
operation  requires  more  than  an  hour's  time.  When 
the  crucible  is  hot,  and  of  course  glazed,  the  furnace 
top-plate  —  a  sort  of  iron  trap-door  —  is  raised,  and 
a  tapered  sheet-iron  pipe  is  inserted  into  the  hot  pot. 
Through  this  pipe  the  pieces  of  blistered  steel  are 
gently  lowered  into  the  bottom  of  the  crucible.  The 
pots  are  usually  of  tho  capacity  of  thirty  pounds, 


142  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

though  a  large  sized  pot  will  readily  contain  forty 
pounds  of  pieces. 

A  cover  made  of  pot-clay,  which  fits  the  crucible, 
is  now  laid  upon  it,  fresh  coke  given  to  the  fire,  and 
the  heat  gradually  raised  to  the  melting  point  of 
steel.  This  operation  requires  from  one  to  two  hours ; 
and  in  the  mean  time  the  furnace  is  frequently  open- 
ed, and  fresh  coke  charged,  so  that  the  fuel  may  be 
higher  than  the  top  of  the  crucible.  Before  the  steel 
is  melted,  the  lid  is  removed,  and  a  little  bottle-glass, 
or  pounded  blast-furnace  slag,  is  thrown  in.  This 
will  form  a  vitreous  cover  on  the  surface  of  the  melt- 
ed steel,  and  exclude  the  access  and  influence  of 
atmospheric  air,  in  case  the  cover  of  the  crucible  is 
not  sufficiently  tight  for  that  purpose.  A  great  deal 
of  fresh  air  draws  in  at  the  furnace  door,  even  if  it 
fits  well. 

After  the  fusion  of  the  steel,  the  crucible  is  still 
kept  standing  in  the  fire,  to  fuse  it  perfectly,  and  give 
time  for  the  interchange  of  atoms  in  the  fluid  mass. 
As  the  melting  process  is  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a  uniform  grain,  those  portions  of  the  steel 
which  have  more  carbon  than  others,  have  to  dispose 
of  a  portion  of  it,  and  thus  equalize  the  whole  mass. 
When  sufficiently  fused,  the  crucible  is  lifted  from 
the  fire  to  the  floor,  when  the  cover  is  removed,  and 


BLISTERED    STEEL.  143 

the  scoria  taken  off  by  an  iron  rod,  with  a  scraper 
attached  to  it. 

The  tongs  with  which  the  crucible  is  lifted  are  pro- 
vided at  their  fire-end  with  arched  claws,  like  basket 
tongs,  to  fit  the  circle  of  the  crucible.  The  work- 
men, in  getting  ready  for  casting,  cover  their  hands, 
arms  and  legs  with  coarse  bagging,  formed  into  nar- 
row sacks,  which  they  saturate  with  water  before 
putting  on ;  they  are  thus  protected  against  the  in- 
tense heat.  When  all  are  ready,  one  smelter  grasps 
the  pot  in  the  furnace,  and  conveys  it  to  a  certain 
spot  on  the  floor.  Other  hands  are  ready  to  take  off 
the  cover,  remove  the  scoria,  and  carry  the  crucible 
to  the  mould,  into  which  it  is  cast  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible. The  smelter  in  the  meanwhile  gets  his  furnace 
ready  for  the  returning  crucible ;  for  there  may  be 
coke  on  the  sole-piece,  and,  if  so,  it  is  necessary  that 
it  should  be  removed. 

As  soon  as  the  crucible  is  emptied,  it  is  returned 
to  the  furnace,  and  the  fire  put  in  a  condition  to 
make  another  heat.     The  operation  is  now  somewhat 
shorter,  but  very  much  like  the  first. 
13 


144  MANUFACTURE     OF     STEEL. 


THE    MOULD 

Is  a  hollow  cast-iron  prism,  in  two  halves ;  it  is 
either  a  square  or  an  octagon  —  the  latter  for  round 
Bteel.  Steel  designed  to  be  rolled  in  sheets,  for  saws, 
&c.,  is  cast  in  flat  moulds.  The  two  halves  of  the 
mould,  while  casting,  are  held  together  by  hooks ; 
and  it  is  set  vertically  in  a  narrow  pit,  so  as  to  pro- 
ject but  little  above  the  floor  of  the  building.  The 
mould  is  well  polished  on  the  inside,  and,  shortly  be- 
fore casting,  is  covered  with  a  film  of  oil  and  finely- 
ground  charcoal.  It  is  perhaps  three  times  the  weight 
of  the  cast,  and  about  three  feet  long.  The  upper 
end  of  the  mould,  into  which  the  fluid  steel  is  poured, 
is  open,  and  of  $,  bell-mouthed  shape. 
Fig.  27  is  a  section  of  the  mould.  The 
pouring  of  the  hot  steel  into  the  mould 
requires  some  dexterity  and  skill,  if  we 
expect  to  make  a  sound  and  uniform  bar. 
The  liquid  metal  is  cast  down  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  hollow  mould,  so  that  none  of 
it  shall  touch  the  mould  before  it  reaches 
the  bottom.  There  are  also  larger 
moulds  than  those  we  have  described,  which  take 
more  than  the  contents  of  one  crucible  at  a  time,  and 


BLISTEEED    STEEL.  145 

in  which  steel  bars  of  two  hundred  pounds  are  fre- 
quently cast. 

When  the  ingots  are  cold,  the  moulds  are  opened, 
and  the  steel  removed  and  brought  to  the  tilt,  where 
it  is  treated  like  other  steel. 

Cast-steel  is  much  harder  under  the  tilt  than  any 
other  steel,  and,  what  makes  it  still  worse,  it  will 
bear  but  a  low  degree  of  cherry-red  heat  before  it 
becomes  brittle,  and  falls  to  pieces  under  the  hammer. 
Nor  will  it  bear  piling  and  welding  like  other  steel, 
but  in  this  respect  very  closely  resembles  cast-iron. 
Another  characteristic  of  cast-steel  is,  that  it  is 
always  more  highly  carburetted  than  other  varieties, 
in  order  to  make  it  fusible.  Steel  which  contains 
but  little  carbon  requires  too  high  a  heat  to  be  melt^ 
ed  to  advantage  in  crucibles. 

AMERICAN    STEEL 

Is  manufactured  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  fore- 
going described  processes.  There  are  some  slight 
variations  in  the  converting  furnaces ;  but  they  are 
not  of  sufficient  distinctness  and  importance  to  war- 
rant us  in  giving  a  particular  description  of  the  pro- 
cess. We  shall  allude  to  this  in  the  next  chapter. 
There  is  but  little  cast-steel  at  present  manufactured 


146  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

in  this  country.  Indeed,  what  has  been  done  may  be 
looked  upon  more  in  the  light  of  experiments,  of  an 
undecided  nature,  than  as  a  regular  and  systematic 
course  of  manufacture.  The  apparatus  does  not 
differ  in  any  respect  from  that  described  in  this  chap- 
ter, as  we  may  show  hereafter. 


GENERAL    REMARKS,  147 


CHAPTER  V. 

GENERAL   REMARKS   ON    MAKING  STEEL. 
WOOTZ. 

To  make  wootz,  or  Damascus  steel,  in  the  United 
States,  is  out  of  the  question.  Even  if  we  had  the 
materials,  which  we  certainly  have  not,  and  if  we 
could  pay  an  exorbitant  price  for  such  steel,  there 
would  still  be  no  inducement  for  its  manufacture 
among  us.  The  steel  used  in  the  United  States  is 
intended  for  the  arts  of  peace;  and  for  such  pur- 
poses, cast-steel,  and  shear  or  blistered  steel,  are  all- 
sufficient.  Wootz,  and  similar  kinds  of  steel,  are 
undoubtedly  superior  for  instruments  of  war,  and  the 
finer  descriptions  of  cutlery ;  but  these  advantages 
do  not  make  up  for  the  expensive  and  tedious  pro- 
cess of  manufacture,  and  must  for  ever  prevent  its 
introduction  among  us.  We  need  therefore  say  no 
more  on  the  subject. 


148  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


GERMAN     STEEL 

Is  at  present  not  manufactured  in  the  United 
States,  and  will  not  probably  again  be  attempted, 
because  the  particular  kind  of  ore  from  which  the 
Germans  make  their  cheapest  and  best  steel  has 
never  yet  been  found  in  such  a  quantity  and  of  such 
a  quality  as  to  warrant  the  erection  of  steel-works. 
The  fact  that  we  have  no  spathic  carbonate  of  iron, 
or  sparry  ore,  however,  does  not,  in  our  opinion,  fur- 
nish a  good  ground  for  excluding  the  manufacture  of 
German  steel.  There  are  localities  where  it  might 
be  carried  on  successfully.  There  is  an  abundance 
of  pure  and  rich  iron  ore  scattered  over  nearly  all  of 
the  States ;  and,  though  every  ore,  even  if  pure,  will 
not  make  good  steel,  still  there  are  many  deposites 
of  rich  ore  which  are  in  every  way  suited  for  the 
manufacture  of  natural  steel.  A  great  difficulty  in 
the  way  of  our  advancement  in  this  manufacture  is 
the  high  price  of  labour,  which  renders  us  unable  to 
compete  with  foreign  manufacturers.  Another  diffi- 
culty is  found  in  the  fact  that  our  operatives  are 
not  skilled  in  the  manufacture.  For  the  last  thirty 
years,  the  aim  of  the  iron  manufacturers  has  been  to 
increase  the  quantity,  with,  in  most  instances,  an  en- 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  149 

tire  disregard  of  quality.  Now,  as  the  first  requisite 
in  the  manufacture  of  steel  is  a  superior  quality  of 
iron,  it  is  not  surprising  that  we  encounter  difficulties 
in  the  process.  As  the  majority  of  our  native  work- 
men may  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  English 
school  of  operatives,  and  as  the  tendency  of  England 
has  been  to  make  cheap  iron,  for  export,  we  naturally 
fall  into  the  same  practice. 

German  or  Swedish  working  cannot  succeed  here, 
because  our  material  and  our  social  relations  are  so 
widely  different  from  theirs,  that  their  mode  of  ope- 
rations is  altogether  unsuited  to  us.  If  we  would 
succeed  in  this  important  branch  of  industry,  we  must 
cultivate  our  own  resources,  augment  our  knowledge 
of  materials  and  the  mode  of  working  them,  and 
raise  a  set  of  native  hands,  who  shall  take  a  proper 
interest  in  the  successful  prosecution  t,f  their  art. 


FIRST    ELEMENT. 

In  making  steel,  sthe  first  and  most  important  ele- 
ment is  the  iron-ore.  To  be  sure,  steel  may  be  made 
of  almost  any  kind  of  ore  ;  but  it  would  be  found,  in 
the  end,  that  the  product  would  cost  more  than  it 
would  come  to.  Bog  ore,  the  common  impure  hema- 
tites, the  compact  carbonates  and  hematites  of  the 


150  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

coal  formation,  the  clay  ores  and  red  iron-stones,  the 
impure  magnetic  ores,  and  all  our  sparry  ores,  will 
make  steel;  but  the  steel  will  never  be  of  a  good 
quality,  and  will  always  be  expensive.  There  are  no 
doubt  many  heavy  deposites  of  very  pure  and  rich 
iron-ore,  particularly  the  rich  ores  of  Vermont,  Con- 
necticut, New  York,  and  New  Jersey ;  the  beautiful 
hematites  and  pipe-ores  of  Pennsylvania ;  and  the 
rich  ore-beds  of  Ohio,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama ;  but 
it  is  questionable  whether  natural  steel  can  be  made 
successfully  even  of  any  of  these  ores.  They  are 
adapted  to  make  blister,  shear,  and  cast-steel,  and 
many  of  them  will  make  a  pure  iron  for  conversion 
into  steel ;  but  here  their  usefulness  may  be  said  to 
cease.  Magnetic  ore  and  pipe-ore,  even  if  of  the 
best  quality,  cannot  profitably  be  converted  into 
natural  steel. 

We  come  now  to  the  only  ores  which  can  with 
profit  be  used  for  the  manufacture  of  natural  steel, 
and  which  fortunately  are  found  in  great  perfection 
and  abundance.  These  are  the  ore  of  the  Missouri 
iron-mountain,  and  the  recently  discovered  deposites 
near  Lake  Superior.  There  are  also  fine  specular 
ores  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey;  but  the 
amount  is  more  limited  than  in  the  above  localities, 
and  the  ore  is  not  of  so  pure  a  quality.  An  iron-ore 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  151 

to  be  converted  into  natural  steel  should  be  cheap 
and  pure  —  either  a  carbonate  or  a  per-oxide  —  to  be 
profitable. 

The  conversion  of  cast-iron  into  steel  has  been  be- 
fore described ;  it  is  by  no  means  difficult  if  the  pig- 
iron  is  suitable ;  but,  should  the  iron  be  impure,  it 
is  a  tedious  operation.  Proper  attention  must  be 
paid,  in  making  natural  steel,  to  the  conversion  of 
the  ore  into  crude  iron.  The  usual  method  of  con- 
ducting a  blast-furnace  will  not  answer  in  this  case. 
Crude  iron  for  steel  requires  a  very  regular  and  not 
too  heavy  blast,  a  wide  hearth,  and  steep  boshes. 
The  charges  of  the  blast-furnace  ought  to  be  entirely 
without  lime,  or  at  least  with  as  little  lime  as  possi- 
ble ;  and  for  the  same  reason,  any  ore  containing 
lime  is  to  be  rejected.  Hot-blast  is  to  be  avoided  by 
all  means ;  it  should  never  be  used  where  good 
wrought-iron  is  made,  and  is  utterly  unsuitable  for 
steel.  Charcoal  is  the  best  fuel  for  the  blast-furnace ; 
it  should  be  of  pine,  coarse  and  well  charred.  All 
brands  and  pieces  of  uncharred  wood  must  be  care- 
fully rejected. 

A  leading  object  in  making  cast-iron  for  natural 
steel  is  to  purify  it  of  all  admixtures  but  of  carbon ; 
and  for  this  reason  particular  attention  must  be  paid 
to  the  operation.  The  ire  is  therefore  to  be  pure. 


152  MANUFACTURE     OF    STEEL. 

clean  and  dry,  and,  if  not  a  per-oxidc,  well  roasted 
by  charcoal  or  wood.  Fluxes  should  be  avoided,  if 
possible ;  the  iron  oxide  or  manganese  itself  is  to  be 
the  flux ;  the  cinder  is  then  of  a  brownish  colour  and 
glassy  fracture.  The  hearth-stones  are  to  be  of  fine- 
grained sandstone,  with  a  liberal  admixture  of  clay. 

Another  important  object  in  the  operation  is  to 
flux  the  impurities  of  the  ore  by  spending  or  wast- 
ing some  of  the  iron  in  the  ore ;  for  this  purpose,  a 
cheap  ore  is  necessary.  So  long  as  we  insist  upon 
having  thirty-nine  out  of  the  forty  parts  of  iron 
which  an  ore  may  contain,  there  is  no  possibility  of 
obtaining  an  iron  which  is  suitable  for  making  steel. 
We  require  not  only  a  pure  iron,  but  also  an  iron 
which  contains  carbon,  if  we  would  make  good  steel ; 
and  to  secure  such  iron,  we  have  to  charge  a  liberal 
quantity  of  charcoal  along  with  the  ore,  being  care- 
ful not  to  raise  the  heat  in  the  furnace  so  high  as  to 
cause  impurities  in  the  iron.  In  short,  a  low  heat, 
and  an  abundance  of  coal  and  good  ore,  will  produce 
a  superior  steel ;  it  is  idle  to  hope  for  it  in  any  other 
way. 

Our  deposites  of  rich  pure  ore  are  of  so  great  an 
extent,  and  in  such  abundance,  that  a  ton  of  the  ma- 
terial costs  a  mere  trifle ;  and  if  charcoal  or  wood 
can  be  had  equally  low,  the  place  for  a  steel-works  is 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  153 

indicated.  Steel  does  not  cost  so  much  in  the  article 
of  labour,  as  for  materials ;  where  the  latter  are  ex- 
pensive, the  steel  of  course  is  so ;  but  where  materials 
are  abundant  and  of  good  quality,  there  is  no  impe- 
diment to  carrying  on  the  business  successfully  and 
profitably.  As  we  have  already  said,  the  present 
mode  of  conducting  blast-furnaces  will  not  produce 
iron  sufficiently  good  for  conversion  into  steel ;  and 
we  have  indicated  the  faults  in  the  system. 


BLISTERED    STEEL. 

In  making  blistered  or  cast-steel,  there  is  little  or 
no  difficulty;  the  mechanical  operations  of  conver- 
sion, melting  and  tilting,  are  well  performed  by  our 
workmen,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  any  further 
remarks  upon  them.  But  here,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
natural  steel,  the  difficulties  in  the  manufacture  arise 
from  the  quality  of  the  iron  used  in  conversion,  and 
not  from  any  want  of  skill  in  manipulation. 

The  American  steel  at  present  in  the  market  shows 
that  we  have  the  means  of  making  good  steel,  but 
that  there  is  some  deficiency  in  the  quality  of  that 
produced.  In  Pittsburgh  some  very  excellent  spring- 
steel  is  made ;  indeed,  it  is  superior  for  springs  to 


154  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

any  of  the  imported  article.  In  Philadelphia,  large 
quantities  of  converted  steel  are  worked  into  saw- 
blades  of  excellent  quality.  All  this  steel,  amount- 
ing to  near  seven  thousand  tons  annually,  is  made  of 
iron  which  is  smelted  from  hematite  and  pipe-ores. 
There  is  frequently  some  iron  among  that  to  be  con- 
verted which  would  make  fine  shear  or  cast-steel; 
but,  as  it  is  not  of  a  uniform  quality,  it  cannot  be 
depended  upon.  This  irregularity,  which  is  a  chief 
objection  to  this  otherwise  superior  iron,  is  a  serious 
and  apparently  insuperable  impediment  to  the  pro- 
gress of  the  steel  factories. 

Cast-steel  is  manufactured  in  New  Jersey,  and 
also  in  Pittsburgh,  at  the  present  time.  We  know 
little  of  the  progress  of  those  establishments,  how- 
ever, and  suppose  they  suffer  under  the  general  com- 
plaint—  imperfect  iron.  As  it  is  of  vital  importance 
to  the  prosperity  of  steel-works  to  have  good  iron,  it 
may  be  the  better  plan  for  us  to  define,  first,  what  is 
good  iron,  and  then  show  precisely  how  it  should  be 
made. 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  155 


GOOD    IRON    FOR    CONVERSION 

Is  pure  iron,  no  matter  whether  strong  or  weak. 
The  strongest  kind  of  iron  is  generally  the  least 
valuable  for  this  purpose.  Fibrous  iron  is  usually 
inferior  to  short  iron ;  but  the  rule  is  not  to  be  im- 
plicitly relied  on.  Iron  may  be  fibrous,  and  still  be 
pure,  though  there  is  little  of  it  known  which  is  of 
this  character.  Colour,  strength  and  hardness  are 
not  unerring  guides  in  arriving  at  a  decision  as  to  the 
fitness  of  iron  for  making  steel.  Bright  iron,  of  a 
brilliant  lustre,  may  contain  phosphorus,  silicon,  or 
some  other  matter  which  renders  it  unfit  for  steel. 
The  strongest  fibrous  iron  generally  contains  more 
silex  than  other  pure  kinds  of  iron ;  chemically  pure 
iron  is  also  fibrous,  but  it  is  weak.  Iron  may  be 
hard,  and  yet  make  a  superior  steel ;  but  this  is  not 
often  the  case. 

The  safest  method  of  ascertaining  the  quality  of 
iron  for  conversion  is  by  actual  trial ;  but  this  is  an 
expensive  experiment  when  the  iron  proves  bad,  as  a 
single  trial  in  a  converting  furnace  of  but  one  box 
requires  from  six  to  ten  tons  of  metal.  It  is  practi- 
cally impossible  to  obtain  iron  that  is  perfectly  pure ; 
but  the  nearer  we  arrive  at  that  standard,  and  the 
14 


156  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

less  foreign  admixture  there  is,  the  more  suitable  is 
the  iron  for  conversion. 

A  good  plan  for  ascertaining  the  purity  of  iron  is 
to  submit  it  to  chemical  analysis.  Iron  may  contain 
carbon  to  any  extent ;  but  if  it  contain  more  than 
one-two-thousandth  part  of  silex  or  silicon,  phospho- 
rus, sulphur,  calcium  or  lime,  copper,  tin,  or  arsenic, 
it  will  never  make  first-rate  steel.  The  quality  or 
value  of  the  iron  in  this  case  is  in  an  inverse  ratio 
to  .the  amount  of  impurities  it  contains. 

An  analysis  of  wrought-iron  is  not  easily  made, 
when  the  object  is  to  find  very  small  quantities  of 
foreign  substances ;  it  requires  a  skilful  manipulator, 
and  good  apparatus  and  re-agents.  It  may  not  be 
improper  here  to  refer  to  Professor  James  Booth,  of 
Philadelphia,  as  in  every  way  qualified  to  make  the 
necessary  tests. 

We  have  said  that  for  conversion  we  need  pure 
iron,  no  matter  how  it  looks,  or  how  weak  or  strong 
it  may  be.  Such  iron,  however,  is  not  so  easily 
made.  The  first  step  towards  success  is  pure,  rich 
iron-ore,  no  matter  of  what  kind.  Magnetic  ore  is 
generally  preferred ;  but  this  is  on  account' of  its 
being  usually  richer  and-inidre.  free  from  impurities, 
and  those  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  got  rid  of  in  the 
refining  process.  There  is  no  essential  difference 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  157 

between  the  ores  which  makes  one  more  qualified 
than  the  other.  The  process  in  the  blast-furnace  is 
of  the  same  nature  as  that  described  in  the  foregoing 
pages  for  making  natural  steel.  For  this  purpose  we 
require  a  pure  grey  or  mottled  pig.  We  may  then 
sum  up  thus :  The  blast-furnace  is  to  be  charged  with 
well-prepared  ore,  little  limestone,  less  coal  as  above, 
an  excess  of  ore,  cold  blast,  and  regular  working. 


MAKING  OF  THE  IRON  FOR  CONVERSION. 

Grey  pig-iron  of  the  kind  we  have  described  is 
boiled  in  the  forge-fire;  that  is,  it  is  not  passed 
through  a  run-out  fire,  as  is  now  frequently  done  at 
our  forges.  It  is  charged  to  the  fire,  and  melted 
down  a  whole  heat  at  once.  This  grey  iron,  when 
melted,  is  or  ought  to  be  perfectly  fluid ;  and  by  di- 
recting the  blast  upon  it,  with  continual  stirring,  it 
is  brought  to  boiling.  It  works  rather  slowly  by  this 
method ;  but  it  is  the  proper  way  to  make  good  iron. 
The  process  can  be  accelerated  by  throwing  scales, 
or  rich  magnetic  ore  into  the  fluid  iron ;  but  here 
speed  is  obtained  at  the  expense  of  quality ;  for,  un- 
less the  magnetic  ore  is  freed  of  every  particle  of 
impurity  by  washing,  the  iron  will  be  inferior  to  that 


158  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

produced  by  the  slower  method.  Anything,  no  mat- 
ter  what,  thrown  into  the  iron  to  make  it  work  faster, 
is  injurious,  and  seriously  degrades  the  quality  of  the 
metal. 

The  liquid  mass  is  kept  boiling  under  continual 
stirring  until  the  iron  crystallizes  into  lumps,  which 
are  brought  before  the  tuyere,  and,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  strong  heat,  welded  together.  A  large 
quantity  of  cinder  is  kept  all  the  time  in  the  hearth, 
which  is  occasionally  tapped,  particularly  when  the 
iron  is  about  to  be  welded  and  shingled. 

It  is  useless  to  think  of  making  good  steel-iron  of 
white  plate-iron,  or  iron  which  does  not  boil.  If  the 
crude  iron  is  pure  and  of  the  best  kind,  it  still  re- 
quires time,  skill,  and  labour  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  impurities  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  good  iron. 
As  the  purest  iron  is  never  too  pure,  there  is  no  limit 
to  the  qualitative  improvement  of  this  description  of 
iron. 

The  puddling  process  is  not  so  far  perfected  as  to 
enable  us  by  its  use  to  make  good  steel-iron ;  our 
knowledge  of  the  operation  is  entirely  insufficient  for 
this  purpose.  There  is  no  other  method  at  present 
known  to  us  but  the  charcoal-forge,  good  pig-iron, 
plenty  of  coal,  and  careful  and  competent  men  to 
conduct  the  operations. 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  159 

The  description  given  in  Chapter  IV.  of  the  appa- 
ratus and  manipulation  for  converting  and  melting 
steel  are  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes ;  but  we 
•will  here  allude  to  some  leading  principles  which  it  is 
important  to  know.  A  remarkable  feature  in  the 
nature  of  steel  is,  that  it  continues  to  be  steel  until 
it  is  melted,  when  it  turns  into  white  cast-iron ;  and 
this  is  true  of  all  the  varieties  of  steel.  A  know- 
ledge of  this  fact  is  important  in  constructing  con- 
verting furnaces ;  they  should  be  so  constructed  as  to 
give  a  uniform  heat  over  the  whole  interior,  that  one 
part  of  the  chest  might  not  become  hotter  than  an- 
other. The  strength  of  cast-steel  would  be  no  greater 
than  that  of  white  cast-iron,  if  it  were  melted  in  an 
apparatus  where  it  could  absorb  impurities.  The 
iron  in  the  converting-box  is  in  contact  with  foreign 
matters  which  are  injurious  to  steel ;  and  if  the  con- 
verted iron  melts  in  such  a  box,  its  fitness  for  steel  is 
generally  destroyed.  If  iron  could  be  cemented  to 
any  degree  we  chose,  it  would  gradually  be  converted 
into  a  fine  grey  cast-iron,  in  which  form  it  would  ab- 
sorb little  or  none  of  the  cement.  The  combination 
takes  place  only  when  the  iron  is  in  a  molten  state. 


160      MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL. 


THE  CEMENT 

Consists  principally  of  charcoal ;  and  there  is  suf- 
ficient evidence  that  pure  charcoal  will  make  the  best 
steel.  All  descriptions  of  iron,  however,  are  not 
similarly  composed ;  and  as  carhon  alone  does  not 
make  the  very  best  steel,  there  is  a  necessity  for  a 
compound  cement.  The  charcoal  is  used  in  the  form 
of  a  coarse  powder,  the  grains  of  the  size  of  blasting 
powder;  it  is  sifted,  and  the  fine  dust,  a  great  deal 
of  which  is  made  in  pounding  the  coal,  is  thrown 
away.  Sometimes  the  charcoal  is  cut  by  a  sharp 
knife,  set  in  a  machine  similar  to  a  straw-cutter. 
Charcoal  made  from  the  harder  woods,  such  as  white- 
oak  and  black-jack,  hickory,  dogwood,  sugar  maple, 
&c.,  give  us  the  greatest  quantity  of  cement,  and  of 
the  best  kind.  The  addition  of  refuse  tobacco,  such 
as  is  thrown  away  by  segar  manufacturers,  may  prove 
of  advantage  to  the  cement.  An  addition  of  ten  or 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  pure  lampblack  is  also  an  im- 
provement, but  rather  expensive.  In  the  Western 
States,  or  the  bituminous  coal  region,  lampblack  may 
be  made  cheaply ;  but  if  not  of  the  purest  kind  of 
coal,  it  will  injure  the  steel.  Sulphurous  coal,  there- 
fore, shou)d  not  be  used.  Anthracite  powder,  coke 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  161 

powder,  and  black  lead  or  plumbago,  are  inadmissi- 
ble, either  pure  or  in  admixture  with  charcoal.  The 
cement  generally  in  use  is  composed  of  charcoal 
mixed  with  one-tenth  part  of  good  wood-ashes,  and 
about  one-thirtieth  of  common  salt.  The  whole  of 
it  is  then  moistened  and  well  mixed.  Some  estab- 
lishments vary  the  cement  slightly,  but  the  majority 
use  the  proportions  above  given. 

For  some  descriptions  of  iron,  charcoal  alone 
makes  the  best  cement.  In  such  cases,  the  wood  of 
the  gum,  poplar,  sassafras,  &c.,  which  make  but  little 
ashes,  should  be  charrecL  Charcoal  made  from  pine 
is  to  be  rejected,  as  it  is  too  soon  exhausted.  Some 
metallurgists  have  tried  and  recommended  the  addi- 
tion of  borax,  prussiate  of  potash,  horn,  bones,  vine- 
gar, manganese,  sal-ammonia,  and  a  variety  of  other 
things ;  but  none  of  these  admixtures  have  any  be- 
neficial effect  upon  the  steel. 

Experiments  have  been  tried  with  a  view  of  mak- 
ing steel  by  conducting  carburetted  hydrogen  gas 
between  bars  of  hot  iron ;  or  leading  carbonic  oxide 
gas  to  it ;  or  cementing  with  diamond  powder,  and 
similar  projects.  These  experiments,  however,  have 
all  proved  abortive;  bad  iron  cannot  be  converted 
into  good  steel,  under  any  circumstances ;  and  it  is 
certain  that  charcoal  powder  is  at  least  equal  to  dia- 


162  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

mond  powder,  or  anything  else  that  has  been  tried 
up  to  the  present  time. 

The  size,  form  and  material  of  the  converting- 
cnest  has  some  influence  on  the  quality  of  the  steel 
made.  For  spring-steel,  the  boxes  may  be  three  feet 
high  and  three  feet  wide;  such  a  box  will  take  a 
charge  thirty  inches  high.  The  chest,  however,  had 
better  be  not  more  than  thirty  inches  each  way ;  this 
size  will  consume  a  little  more  fuel  than  the  other, 
but  that  loss  is  richly  made  up  in  the  superior  quality 
of  the  product.  In  wide  and  high  chests,  particu- 
larly the  latter,  the  central  bars  are  never  so  well 
cemented  as  they  should  be,  while  the  extreme  bars 
absorb  too  much  carbon.  As  a  general  rule,  Ameri- 
can converting-chests  are  not  wider  than  thirty  inches ; 
while  in  Europe  we  frequently  find  them  of  the  larger 
size  mentioned. 

The  length  of  the  boxes  is  unlimited,  except  by 
the  strength  of  the  furnaces.  Long  boxes  require  to 
be  well  secured  by  iron  binders;  of  course,  with 
shorter  boxes,  this  is  not  so  important.  In  this 
country  we  find  no  boxes  less  than  twelve  feet  long, 
and  they  do  not  often  extend  beyond  twenty.  The 
grate  is  somewhat  troublesome  to  manage  in  long 
furnaces ;  but  this  is  not  of  much  consequence.  The 
size  of  the  grate  is  of  some  importance  in  the  result; 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  163 

it  is  better  in  all  instances  to  have  it  too  large  than 
too  small.  A  grate  two  feet  wide  by  thirty  inches 
deep  is  a  good  size  for  bituminous  coal,  with  thirty 
inch  boxes.  For  wood  or  anthracite  coal,  the  grate 
should  be  four  feet  wide.  In  this  case  the  boxes 
will  be  rather  far  apart,  because  the  bottom  of  each 
box  is  to  rest  on  solid  masonry,  and  there  will  con- 
sequently be  a  considerable  loss  of  heat.  To  avoid 
this  loss,  we  put  another  box  in  the  open  space,  thus 
making  three  boxes  in  the  furnace.  The  middle  box 
is  to  rest  upon  a  series  of  fire-brick  arches,  which  are 
sprung  upon  the  tongues ;  and  as  these  arches  are 
higher  than  those  tongues,  the  middle  box  will  be 

Fig.  28. 


164  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

higher  than  the  other  two,  and  the  whole  will  assume 
the  arrangement  represented  in  fig.  28. 

The  flues  around  the  boxes  are  to  be  of  uniform 
size,  and  so  arranged  as  to  make  an  equal  heat  all 
over  the  furnace.  If,  after  the  first  trial,  it  is  found 
that  the  boxes  work  hotter  in  one  place  than  in  an- 
other, the  flues  in  the  hottest  parts  are  to  be  made 
narrower.  The  arch  is  to  be  as  flat  as  possible,  and 
at  least  nine  inches  thick.  The  spring  or  height  of 
the  arch  will  depend  upon  the  resistance  of  the  rough 
walls  of  the  furnace ;  if  these  are  secure,  and  the 
furnace  well  provided  with  iron  binders,  the  arch 
may  be  very  flat.  The  flues  are  generally  in  the 
centre  of  the  arch  ;  but  should  the  furnace  work  hot- 
ter in  the  centre  than  on  the  sides,  some  flues  may 
be  opened  at  the  sides,  where  it  is  found  to  work  too 
cold.  In  some  instances  the  boxes  have  no  flues  at 
the  ends ;  this  is  allowable  where  spring-steel  only  is 
made  ;  but  for  shear  or  cast  steel  it  is  an  ill-advised 
economy,  as  the  ends  of  the  bars  are  always  better 
cemented  when  the  fire  plays  freely  at  the  ends  of 
the  chests. 


GENE-HAL    REMARKS.  165 


THE    KIND    OR    QUALITY    OF    MATERIAL 

Used  for  chests  is  not  only  of  importance  so  far  as 
durability  is  concerned,  but  it  is  also  of  influence  in 
the  quality  of  the  product.  In  this  country,  and 
also  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  boxes  are  made 
of  fire-brick ;  but  in  England  they  are  not  unfre- 
quently  made  of  sandstone  slabs.  The  first  consider- 
ation is  the  durability  of  the  boxes,  and  the  absence 
of  fissures  in  the  material.  Pure  clay  is  the  best 
material,  so  far  as  its  influence  upon  the  quality  of 
the  steel  is  concerned ;  but  it  is  liable  to  cracks  and 
fissures,  and  its  expansion  and  contraction  are  too 
great  to  admit  of  durability.  The  addition  of  fire- 
sand  to  the  clay  renders  the  latter  much  more  dura- 
ble ;  but  the  steel  is  injured  just  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  sand  in  the  admixture.  Good  fire-brick 
is  perhaps  the  best  material  for  chests ;  and  here 
Pittsburgh  has  a  decided  advantage  in  its  Johnstown 
brick.  A  similar  brick,  known  as  the  Mount  Savage 
fire-brick,  is  obtained  from  Cumberland  county,  Ma- 
ryland. The  clay  for  these  bricks  is  not  at  present, 
but  ought  to  be,  formed  into  slabs  of  a  sufficient 
length  to  cover  a  flue,  and  of  half  the  height  of  the 
box,  and  then  burned.  Such  slabs  would  be  very 


166  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

durable,  and  the  material  is  decidedly  favourable  to 
the  quality  of  steel. 

Sandstone  slabs  of  good  quality  may  be  found  in 
the  anthracite  coal  region ;  but  they  would  cost  quite 
as  much  as  fire-brick.  It  is  ^possible  that  the  Mary- 
land soapstone  can  be  used  to  advantage ;  but,  con- 
sidering that  a  good  fire-brick  chest  may  last  for 
many  years,  it  is  scarcely  advisable  to  risk  the  expe- 
riment for  the  sake  of  the  trifling  saving  which  might 
perhaps  be  effected. 

In  the  Western  States,  particularly  in  the  coal- 
fields—  the  only  localities  where  steel  can  be  made 
to  advantage  in  the  West  —  there  is  no  alternative 
but  to  use  good  fire-brick,  that  in  which  clay  predo- 
minates. Slabs  of  freestone  may  be  had  in  that 
region  of  all  sizes  and  compositions ;  but  the  stones 
of  the  bituminous  coal-fields  are  very  liable  to  break 
when  heated,  and  never  bear  alternations  of  temper- 
ature without  injury. 

The  thickness  of  the  sides  of  the  chest  is  gene- 
rally two  inches,  which  is  quite  sufficient;  but  a 
greater  thickness  does  no  other  harm  than  that  it 
requires  the  use  of  more  fuel. 


GENERAL  REMARKS.         167 


A  NEW  BOX 

Should  be  gently  dried  and  heated  up  to  its  normal 
heat,  and  then  slowly  cooled,  before  any  iron  is 
charged.  This  is  necessary  to  open  those  fissures 
which  may  be  invisible  in  the  bricks  or  joints.  At 
each  heat,  before  any  iron  or  cement  is  charged,  the 
box  is  to  be  carefully  examined,  and  the  smallest 
crevice  or  joint  cautiously  filled  with  a  fire-clay  which 
is  chiefly  composed  of  finely-ground  and  well-burnt 
fire-brick.  The  most  diminutive  opening  in  a  box 
may  cause  great  loss  by  burning  a  portion  of  the 
iron,  and  rendering  it  unfit  for  steel  or  any  other 
purpose.  Care  must  also  be  taken  to  prevent  any 
iron,  such  as  binders,  wedges,  plates,  &c.,  from  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  chest,  as  it  injures  the  fire- 
brick. 


FORM    OF    IRON. 

It  is  not  only  the  quality  of  iron  which  has  influ- 
ence upon  the  manufacture  of  steel;  a  great  deal 
depends  also  upon  the  form  in  which  it  is  used.  Iron 
which  has  become  rusty  from  exposure  to  the  atmo- 
sphere is  to  be  cleaned  of  its  oxide,  and  not  used 
15 


168  MANUFACTURE     OF     STEEL. 

until  that  is  done.  The  iron  bars  for  conversion,  too, 
should  be  as  free  from  scales  or  hammer-slag  as  pos- 
sible ;  on  this  account,  hammered  iron  is  preferable 
to  that  which  has  been  rolled.  Rust  or  hammer-slag 
forms  a  coating  of  very  close  and  compact  carburet 
of  iron,  through  which  the  carbon  cannot  penetrate. 
All  coarse  fibrous  iron,  even  if  of  good  quality,  should 
be  rejected,  as  it  makes  imperfect  steel ;  the  same 
may  be  said  of  iron  which  is  unsound,  splintery,  and 
scaly.  The  size  of  the  iron,  also,  is  a  matter  of 
some  importance.  Swedish  and  German  iron  for 
conversion  is  usually  of  the  thickness  of  a  common 
horse-shoe  or  wagon-tire.  In  Pittsburgh,  rolled  bars 
of  four  or  four  and  a  half  inches  are  generally  used. 
In  Philadelphia,  we  see  slabs  for  cementation  of 
about  two  feet  long,  five  or  six  inches  wide,  and  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  thick. 

Bars  for  blistered  steel,  shear-steel,  and  all  those 
kinds  of  steel  which  are  not  melted,  but  simply  tilted 
or  rolled,  should  not  be  thicker  than  half  an  inch,  or 
even  less.  The  difference  in  a  thick  bar,  between  the 
exterior  and  interior  parts,  is  too  great  to  be  removed 
by  simply  tilting  or  rolling  them.  Bars  which  are 
designed  for  cast,  spring,  or  coarse  blistered  steel, 
may  be  three-fourths  of  an  inch ;  but  they  should  be 
longer  exposed  to  the  heat,  and,  in  the  case  of  cast- 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  169 

steel,  the  conversion  should  be  two  or  three  times 
repeated. 

Shear-steel,  to  be  profitably  manufactured,  requires 
thin  and  small  bars,  which  need  but  little  refining  to 
be  uniform.  The  inducements  to  use  heavy  iron  are 
a  saving  of  time  and  fuel.  A  box  which  will  take 
seven  tons  of  wagon-tire  size  will  take  but  six  tons 
of  horse-shoe  bars ;  while  at  the  same  time  it  will 
contain  ten  tons  of  four  inches  by  three-fourths  of 
an  inch.  Very  small  iron  is  too  unprofitable  in  the 
blistering  process,  even  if  of  greater  advantage  in 
refining.  The  bars  should  be  always  at  least  two  or 
three  inches  shorter  than  the  boxes,  as  iron  expands 
more  by  heat  than  brick,  and  an  iron  bar  of  twenty 
feet  in  length  will  gain  two  and  a  half  inches  by  the 
time  it  is  red-hot. 

There  is  a  point  also  in  the  size  of  the  furnace,  at 
which  it  is  found  that  the  iron  works  most  advan- 
tageously. Small  iron  and  small  furnaces  work 
faster  and  more  uniformly  than  large  iron  and  large 
furnaces;  the  only  disadvantage  being  that  they  use 
more  fuel.  Where  fuel  is  cheap,  and  where  shear-steel 
is  to  be  made,  or  steel  refined  in  any  form,  it  is  more 
profitable  to  use  small  iron  and  small  furnaces ;  for  it 
saves  labour  in  tilting  and  re-heating.  Furnaces  so 
large,  and  iron  so  heavy,  as  to  require  more  than  ten 


170  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

days  for  conversion,  are  not  profitable ;  because  the 
charcoal  cement  works  but  for  a  certain  time  in  a 
certain  heat,  and  all  additional  time  and  heat  is  use- 
less waste.  Bars  which  require  more  carbon  than 
can  be  given  to  them  in  a  week's  time,  like  those  for 
cast-steel,  had  better  be  converted  a  second  time  with 
fresh  cement. 


THE    FIRING    OF    A    FURNACE 

Is  to  be  conducted  with  intelligence,  particularly 
at  a  large  establishment.  Too  rapid  firing  not  only 
injures  the  furnace  and  boxes,  but  exhausts  the  ce- 
ment before  the  iron  is  sufficiently  heated  to  absorb 
the  carbon  thus  liberated.  The  cement  or  charcoal 
is  a  very  bad  conductor  of  heat ;  and  the  heat  of  the 
most  intense  fire  would  scarcely  reach  the  centre  of 
the  box  before  that  of  a  more  moderate  character. 
Two  or  three  days  are  required  before  a  cherry  or 
bright-red  heat  is  given  to  the  boxes ;  and  after  this 
it  is  gradually  increased  to  a  white  heat,  which  is 
kept  up  regularly  and  constantly  without  diminution 
until  the  operation  is  finished. 

Small  furnaces  require  four  or  five  days  and  nights 
— large  ones,  from  that  to  ten  days.  The  kind  of 
fuel  has  some  influence  on  the  time  of  conversion. 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  171 

Anthracite  appears  feo  be  the  best  fuel ;  and  bitumi- 
nous coal  is  superior  "to  wood. 

A  good  steel-maker  knows  pretty  nearly  when  a 
heat  is  done,  if  he  is  acquainted  with  his  materials. 
To  assist  his  judgment,  the  trial-bars  are  drawn  when 
he  thinks  the  process  has  been  completed.  These 
bars  may  be  either  of  the  whole  length  of  the  box, 
or  but  two  or  three  feet  long  ;  the  iron  is  to  be  of  the 
same  quality  as  the  other  iron  in  the  box.  The 
breakage  of  the  bar  will  of  course  show  whether  the 
whole  of  the  metal  has  been  converted  into  steel,  or 
whether  a  core  of  iron  is  left  in  the  centre.  If  the 
latter  should  be  the  case,  the  heat  is  continued  until 
another  trial  shows  a  sufficiency  of  carbon  through- 
out the  bar.  Spring-steel  may  be  good  enough  for 
the  purposes  for  which  it  is  used,  even  if  it  has  an 
iron  core  in  the  centre ;  but  the  other  varieties  of 
steel,  such  as  that  for  saw-blades,  shear-steel,  mill- 
steel,  &c.,  are  of  but  little  value  unless  thoroughly 
cemented.  Blistered  steel,  to  be  suitable  for  conver- 
sion into  cast-steel,  must  have  an  abundant  supply 
of  carbon. 


172  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


CLOSING     OF    A    HEAT. 

When  the  conversion  is  sufficiently  advanced,  the 
furnace  doors  are  closed,  the  chimney-top  and  the 
flues  in  the  arch  stopped  up,  and  the  furnace  left  to 
cool,  which  will  require  from  two  to  five  days,  or  half 
as  long  as  the  conversion.  If  the  furnace  is  cold,  or 
so  far  cooled  as  to  admit  of  the  entrance  of  a  man, 
the  doors  and  flues  are  reopened,  and  the  workmen 
remove  the  converted  bars.  The  size  and  form  of 
the  blisters  on  the  surface  show  very  nearly  the  kind 
of  iron  used,  and  the  quality  of  the  steel  made  from 
it.  The  best  steel  shows  small  blisters  of  uniform 
size  ;  coarse  and  imperfect  iron  shows  both  small  and 
large  blisters  in  great  profusion ;  a  sound  iron  has 
but  few  blisters,  and  those  of  a  large  size ;  coarse 
fibrous  or  puddled  iron  shows  hardly  any  blisters. 
Blistered  steel,  on  coming  from  the  chest,  if  well 
converted,  is  very  brittle  ;  if  strong,  it  generally  con- 
tains iron ;  but  there  is  no  rule  to  be  depended  on : 
short  iron  makes  short  steel,  even  if  imperfectly  con- 
verted. The  produce  of  a  box,  if  designed  for  cast- 
steel  or  refining,  is  assorted  according  to  the  size  of 
its  crystals  in  the  fracture,  and  laid  by  for  either  the 
one  or  the  other  purpose. 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  17o 


THE    TILTING    OF    STEEL, 

As  described  in  Chapter  IV.,  has  been  sufficiently 
explained,  and  requires  no  addition  here.  Steel  for 
springs  and  saw-blades,  if  made  directly  from  blis- 
tered steel,  is  rolled  like  sheet-iron,  and  not  subjected 
to  tilting  or  refining.  A  few  remarks,  however,  are 
needed  in  reference  to  the  chemical  characteristics 
of  cast-steel. 


CAST-STEEL. 

In  former  years,  many  experiments  were  made  by 
Europeans,  and  in  America  also,  to  make  cast-steel 
in  a  more  simple  way,  with  the  hope  of  avoiding  the 
converting  process.  It  was  thought  that  cast-steel 
could  be  made  directly  from  the  iron,  without  resort- 
ing to  the  use  of  blistered  steel.  These  experiments, 
however,  have  utterly  failed,  and  are  now  scarcely 
thought  of.  We  will  enumerate  some  of  them  as  a 
matter  of  curiosity :  The  melting  of  wrought-iron  to- 
gether with  carbon,  or  lampblack ;  the  melting  of 
protoxide  of  iron  with  lampblack ;  protoxide  of  iron 
and  grey  cast-iron  ;  and  the  melting  of  pure  wrought- 
iron.  These  experiments  were  so  erroneous  in  prin- 


174  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

ciple,  that  success  can  hardly  have  been  expected. 
Even  if  this  were  not  so,  the  practical  difficulties  are 
so  great,  as  to  render  success  almost  impossible.  If 
too  much  carbon  were  used,  the  product  would  be 
cast-iron;  if  too  little  carbon,  we  should  have 
wrought-iron ;  and  if  the  admixture  were  precisely 
correct,  the  burning  of  a  part  of  the  carbon,  which 
would  be  almost  unavoidable,  would  destroy  or  injure 
the  steel. 

The  inexperience  of  some  metallurgists,  inducing 
them  to  pronounce  hard  brittle  wrought-iron  to  be 
steel,  has  been  the  cause  of  many  errors.  Some  of 
these  learned  men  insisted  upon  making  good  steel 
by  melting  grey  and  white  cast-iron  together,  or,  as 
before  remarked,  grey  cast-iron  and  wrought-iron; 
or  carbon,  plumbago,  or  diamond  dust,  together  with 
wrought-iron.  All  these  and  numerous  other  experi- 
ments show  that  the  nature  of  steel  never  was  under- 
stood by  these  men.  They  assumed  that  any  iron 
combined  with  a  certain  amount  of  carbon  would 
make  steel,  which  is  not  true.  They  did  not  discri- 
minate between  pure  and  impure  wrought-iron  —  did 
not  know  that  most  iron  is  too  impure  ever  to  make 
steel.  •  How  absurd  to  recommend  the  melting  of 
volatile  carbon  and  refractory  wrought-iron  together  ! 
Even  if  the  iron  is  of  pure  quality,  it  is  almost  im- 


GENERAL     REMARKS.  175 

possible  to  guess  the  exact  quantity  of  carbon ;  and, 
further,  the  danger  of  burning  the  carbon  before  it 
comes  in  contact  with  the  hot  iron,  as  we  have  said, 
is  almost  unavoidable. 

The  expense  of  conversion  is  too  small  to  permit 
us  to  think  of  such  projects.  Blistered  or  converted 
steel  is  sold  at  an  advance  of  but  one  cent  per  pound 
upon  the  cost  of  iron ;  and  in  this  advance  are  com- 
prised the  profits  of  the  steel-burner  and  the  mer- 
chant. Who  would  think  of  cutting  wrought-iron 
into  small  fragments,  or  converting  it  into  borings  or 
filings,  for  the  munificent  profit  of  one  cent  per 
pound  !  Even  if  this  could  be  done,  which  we  posi- 
tively deny,  what  would  be  the  gain  ?  It  certainly 
requires  less  time  and  fuel  to  melt  blistered  steel, 
than  would  be  consumed  in  melting  iron  and  carbon 
together.  However  allowable  such  experiments 
might  be  in  Europe,  where  fuel  is  high  and  labour 
cheap,  they  are  both  unnecessary  and-  unadvisable 
here,  where  fuel  is  abundant,  and  labour  compara- 
tively scarce  and  high. 


176  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


ALLOYS    OF    STEEL. 

Experiments  which  tend  to  form  a  better  quality 
of  the  steel  in  the  process  of  manufacture  have  also 
been  made,  but  with  little  success.  Alloys  of  steel 
and  other  metals  have  been  made  by  melting  them 
together ;  but  none  except  the  alloy  of  steel  and  sil- 
ver ever  came  into  practical  use.  This  was  composed 
of  steel  and  one  five-hundredth  part  of  silver,  and 
was  for  a  time  known  as  silver-steel  of  superior  qua- 
lity. It  has  probably  fallen  into  disuse,  as  we  do  not 
hear  of  it  at  the  present  day.  Other  alloys  than 
those  of  the  precious  metals  deteriorate  the  value  of 
steel,  and  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  beneficial 
effect  of  silver.  On  the  whole,  we  may  conclude 
that  there  is  no  advantage  in  forming  any  alloy  of 
steel ;  it  increases  the  expense,  without  any  corre- 
sponding improvement. 


SELECTION    OF    THE    CONVERTED    BARS. 

In  making  cast-steel,  the  most  important  object  is 
the  selection  of  the  converted  bars.  The  fragments 
of  steel  to  be  charged  and  melted  together  in  the 
crucible  are  to  be  uniformly  and  highly  cemented, 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  177 

and  free  from  any  iron  cores.  Not  only  is  a  highly 
finished  cementation  necessary,  but  all  the  blistered 
fragments  should  be  of  the  same  iron,  and  of  the 
same  heat  of  conversion.  For  cast-steel,  the  most 
highly  cemented  bars  or  parts  of  bars  are  selected,  so 
as  to  have  some  excess  of  carbon,  because  a  portion 
of  it  is  lost  in  melting.  The  uniform  grain,  and  con- 
sequently uniform  hardness,  of  good  cast-steel  is  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  a  proper  selection  of  the  blis- 
tered steel  which  is  subjected  to  the  melting  process. 
The  throwing  together  of  heterogeneous  fragments 
of  steel  is  often  the  cause  of  imperfect  results. 
German  or  natural  steel,  or  blistered  steel  made  of 
imperfect  iron,  is  never  suitable  to  make  good  and 
uniform  cast-steel.  A  perfectly  fluid  state  of  the 
steel  in  the  crucible  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  this 
is  to  be  further  assisted  by  stirring  the  liquid  mass 
repeatedly  before  casting.  This  is  done  with  a  rod 
of  good  iron  ;  impure  or  puddled  iron  is  inadmissible 
for  this  purpose.  The  melting  of  the  steel  is  expe- 
dited by  selecting  the  most  highly  cemented  bars,  or 
subjecting  the  bars  to  be  melted  to  two  or  three  con- 
versions. Such  steel  will  not  be  injured  by  losing  a 
little  carbon,  and  this  in  burning  will  raise  the  heat 
in  the  crucible.  Where  there  is  sufficient  carbon, 
some  pure  black  manganese  is  laid  in  the  bottom  of 


178  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

the  crucible.  The  manganese,  in  being  reduced  to 
protoxide,  combines  with  such  silex  and  alumina  as 
may  be  freed  from  the  iron,  and  forms  a  slag  which 
strongly  resists  the  tendency  of  the  carbon  to  decom- 
pose. The  oxygen  liberated  from  the  manganese 
serves  to  increase  the  heat  in  the  pot.  Nothing  but 
pure  black  manganese  is  admissible ;  any  foreign 
matter  will  injure  the  steel.  The  manganese  should 
be  subjected  to  a  careful  chemical  analysis  before  it 
is  employed. 

« 

THE  FORM  OF  THE  AIR  FURNACES 

For  melting  steel  has  been  already  described; 
they  are  much  better  adapted  to  the  purpose  than 
those  of  any  other  form.  A  sort  of  reverberatory 
furnace  has  been  proposed  and  tried ;  but  it  has  not 
been  found  of  much  advantage.  The  square  form  is 
decidedly  in  advance  of  the  round  form  of  the  fire- 
pit.  In  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States,  anthracite 
is  the  best  fuel  for  these  furnaces,  and  is  successfully 
employed  in  Jersey  City,  in  the  steel-works  of  the 
Adirondac  Company.  In  the  Western  States,  coke 
is  used ;  and  its  excellence  depends  upon  the  hard- 
ness and  purity  of  the  coke.  The  fuel  should  be  dry 
and  warm  before  it  is  used,  as,  if  not  so,  the  pots 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  179 

are  in  langer  of  breaking.  Charcoal  is  a  very  good 
fuel,  but  it  is  entirely  too  expensive.  There  is  not 
much  profit  or  economy  in  double  furnaces,  or  fur- 
naces having  two  pots. 


POTS. 

Of  the  material  of  which  pots  are  composed,  and 
of  the  manner  of  making  them,  we  have  spoken  else- 
where ;  we  will  therefore  make  but  a  few  additional 
remarks  on  their  form  and  composition. 

It  has  been  said  that  a  mixture  of  plumbago  and 
clay  forms  the  best  material  for  the  construction  of 
these  pots ;  but  in  practice  we  do  not  find  this  to  be 
the  case.  Pounded  coke,  anthracite  or  charcoal,  are 
also  added;  but  with  little  advantage.  The  best 
crucibles,  on  many  accounts,  are  those  made  of  pure 
fire-clay ;  and  the  only  objection  to  them  is  that  they 
are  liable  to  breakage,  from  their  inability  to  resist 
a  sudden  change  of  heat.  The  addition  of  old  pot- 
sand  and  a  little  coke-dust  diminishes  the  brittleness, 
and  is  therefore  of  great  advantage.  Instead  of 
coke-powder,  the  powder  of  burned  or  charred  an- 
thracite—  such  as  has  passed  through  a  blast-iur- 
nace,  or  the  heat  of  a  re-heating  furnace  in  a  rolling 

mill  —  may  with  a  good  effect  be  substituted  for  com- 
16 


180  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

mon  coke-dust.  These  ingredients  should  be  perfectly 
mixed,  and  subjected  to  strong  pressure  in  the  pot- 
press. 

A  saving  in  fuel  may  be  effected  by  making  the 
pots  of  a  conical  form ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
do  not  last  so  well  if  too  much  tapered,  and  the  qua- 
lity of  the  steel  is  also  injured.  The  cylindrical  form 
is  the  best  for  quality  and  durability ;  but  these  are 
obtained  at  a  greater  expense  of  fuel.  Pots  are  ge- 
nerally of  three  and  a  half  to  four  inches  diameter 
at  the  bottom,  and  from  four  and  a  half  to  five  inches 
at  the  top ;  the  height  varies  from  twelve  to  sixteen 
inches.  It  is  not  advisable  to  melt  more  than  fifty 
pounds  in  one  crucible  at  a  time ;  the  usual  charge  is 
but  thirty  or  forty  pounds. 

FLUX. 

The  flux  used  to  cover  the  melted  steel,  and  pro- 
tect it  against  the  air  and  flame  of  the  furnace,  is 
glass-powder.  It  is  not  indifferent  what  kind  of 
glass  this  powder  is  made  of;  glass  which  contains 
much  iron,  lead,  arsenic,  manganese,  or,  in  fact,  any 
metallic  oxides,  will  not  answer  for  the  purpose,  and 
should  be  carefully  avoided.  So  also  of  crystal, 
crown,  and  coloured  glass.  What  we  require  is  a 


GENERAL    REMARKS.  181 

hard,  strong,  soda  glass,  such  as  is  generally  used  for 
good  window-panes ;  it  is  white  when  in  thin  sheets, 
but  assumes  a  light-green  appearance  as  it  increases 
in  thickness. 

A  flux  is  not  absolutely  necessary  if  the  pot-covers 
fit  well ;  indeed,  if  good  glass  cannot  be  had,  it  is 
better  to  use  none  at  all.  Any  other  flux,  such  as 
potash,  soda,  or  glass  compositions,  must  be  scrupu- 
lously avoided ;  they  are  all  positively  injurious  to 
the  steel.  We  have  said  enough  to  show  the  import- 
ance of  providing  good  pot-covers. 

How  long  a  pot  should  be  exposed  to  heat,  is  not 
very  easy  to  say.  If  the  steel  is  not  very  fluid,  it 
may  require  five  or  six  hours  before  the  operation 
can  be  completed ;  and  if  so,  the  steel  will  not  be 
good.  In  Sheifield,  from  three  to  four  and  a  half 
hours  is  considered  sufficient.  Steel  which  melts  in 
less  than  three  hours  is  brittle,  and  not  strong.  A 
perfectly  limpid,  and  not  a  slimy,  pasty  state  of  the 
liquid  steel,  is  necessary,  and  should  continue  at  least 
a  quarter  or  half  an  hour,  under  repeated  stirring. 
The  mould  after  casting  is  covered  with  fine  sand  or 
clay,  to  protect  the  hot  steel  from  the  air. 


182  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


TILTING    OF    STEEL 

Is  one  of  the  most  important  operations  in  the 
manufacture.  Good  tilting  improves  the  steel,  while 
imperfect  work  degrades  it.  Experience  is  the  only 
safe  guide  here.  The  force-hammers  should  strike  in 
rapid  succession,  even  if  the  blow  is  slight.  The  de- 
gree of  heat  in  the  bars  varies  according  to  the  qua- 
lity of  the  steel ;  cast-steel  bears  the  least,  and  natu- 
ral steel  the  highest  heat.  Too  hot  or  too  cold  tilting 
makes  the  steel  brittle. 


NATURE    OF    STEEL.  188 


CHAPTER  VI. 

NATURE    OF    STEEL. 
HARDNES  S. 

WHEN  heated  to  redness  and  suddenly  plunged 
into  cold  water,  or  suddenly  cooled  in  any  other  way, 
steel  becomes  hard  —  so  hard,  if  of  good  quality,  as 
to  scratch  glass.  The  degree  of  hardness  depends 
not  only  on  the  quality  of  the  steel,  but  also  on  the 
degree  of  heat  to  which  it  has  been  exposed,  the  me- 
dium in  which  it  is  cooled,  and  the  manner  in  which 
that  cooling  is  performed. 


FINE    CAST-STEEL 

Is  susceptible  of  a  high  degree  of  hardness,  almost 
equal  to  that  of  the  diamond ;  but  it  is  then  too  brit- 
tle to  be  of  practical  use.  Shear-steel  is  less  hard, 


184  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

if  hardened  in  the  same  manner  as  cast-steel,  and  is 
still  more  brittle.  Spring-steel  is  not  capable  of  so 
great  a  degree  of  hardness  as  either  of  the  above 
varieties,  and,  if  manufactured  from  hot-blast  or 
impure  iron,  is  very  brittle. 

GERMAN    STEEL 

Is  frequently  found  to  be  very  hard  and  tenacious, 
equal  to  good  cast-steel ;  but  the  quality  of  German 
steel  is  so  irregular,  that  no  dependence  can  be  placed 
upon  it.  We  frequently  find  very  hard  and  tena- 
cious steel,  and  very  soft  and  brittle  steel,  in  the 
same  bar  of  but  a  few  feet  long.  We  often  also  find 
fibrous  iron  and  good  steel  in  the  same  fracture  of  a 
bar.  The  hardest  iron  or  steel  known  is  the  white 
cast-iron  or  steel-iron  of  Germany,  of  which  German 
steel  is  made.  It  is,  however,  so  brittle  when  hard- 
ened, that  it  will  not  serve  for  any  practical  purpose. 
Some  kinds  of  wrought-iron  may  also  be  hardened, 
but  the  metal  is  never  sufficiently  tenacious  to  assume 
a  fine  edge ;  for  the  edges  formed  of  it  are  so  brittle 
as  to  break  when  exposed  to  slight  pressure. 

The  hardness  as  well  as  the  nature  of  steel  are 
greatly  affected  by  exposure  to  too  much  or  too  little 
heat.  A  dark  cherry-red  heat  is  sufficient  to  give  to 


NATURE    OF    STEEL.  185 

the  best  kinds  of  cast-steel  their  greatest  degree  of 
hardness.  Shear-steel  will  bear  a  higher  heat  than 
cast-steel,  and  German  steel  will  bear  almost  the 
welding  heat  of  iron  —  at  least  a  bright  white  heat  — 
without  injury.  Every  kind  of  steel  has  a  certain 
degree  of  heat  by  which  it  assumes  the  hardest  as 
well  as  the  most  tenacious  form.  If  heated  beyond 
that  point,  the  thin  steel  cracks,  and  the  heavier 
pieces  fly,  either  in  the  cooling  operation,  or  after 
the  termination  of  that  process.  If  cast-steel  is 
heated  to  whiteness  and  cooled,  it  loses  its  peculiar 
hardness  and  tenacity,  becomes  brittle,  and  can  never 
be  restored  to  its  original  quality.  German  and 
shear-steel,  if  the  latter  is  well  refined,  can  bear  con- 
siderable heat  without  much  deterioration  in  quality. 
Blistered  steel  is  more  sensitive  to  heat  than  any 
other  variety,  and  for  this  reason  is  not  suitable  for 
welding  to  iron,  or  making  miners'  tools  of,  though 
it  is  frequently  applied  to  those  uses.  Blistered 
steel  will  not  admit  of  such  frequent  hardening  as 
other  steel.  If  it  has  been  injured  by  too  frequent 
heating  and  hardening,  it  may  be  somewhat  improved 
by  forging  with  quickly  repeated  blows  of  light  ham- 
mers, and  gentle  heating.  If  open  cracks  from  hard- 
ening are  in  the  steel,  a  slight  welding  heat  is  to  be 
given  in  addition. 


186  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

The  more  steel  has  been  forged,  and  the  higher 
the  heat  it  has  been  exposed  to  in  manufacturing,  the 
more  work  and  higher  heat  will  it  bear  in  the  subse- 
quent operations.  It  never  assumes  the  high  degree 
of  tenacity  that  marks  cast-steel,  however,  even  if  it 
should  become  as  hard  as  the  latter.  Cast-steel  is 
the  hardest  and  most  reliable  steel,  if  cautiously 
heated.  If  steel  is  heated  below  its  normal  heat, 
and  cooled  suddenly,  it  does  not  assume  its  natural 
hardness.  German  steel,  heated  to  a  cherry-red, 
remains  as  soft  as  it  was  in  its  tempered  state.  This 
degree  of  heat  is  variable,  as  remarked  above ;  but  if 
the  hardening  heat  is  not  carried  to  the  proper  point, 
the  hardness  of  the  steel  is  always  less  than  its  qua- 
lity would  lead  us  to  expect ;  in  most  cases,  it  is  aa 
soft  as  if  tempered. 


THE     REFRIGERATION     OF    STEEL, 

For  the  purpose  of  hardening  it,  is  performed  in 
most  cases  by  simply  heating  it,  and  plunging  it  sud- 
denly in  cold  water.  This  process  is  frequently  va- 
ried by  moving  the  hot  steel  rapidly  in  the  water,  or 
by  violently  disturbing  the  water.  The  rationale  of 
this  process  is  the  difference  of  temperature  between 
she  hot  steel  and  the  cooling  medium,  as  also  the 


NATURE    OF    STEEL.  187 

time  in  whieh  it  is  performed.  If  the  steel  is  hotter 
and  the  water  colder,  the  steel  will  assume  a  higher 
degree  of  hardness,  or  become  brittle.  By  the  same 
degree  of  heat  in  the  steel,  water  with  ice  or  snow  in 
it  will  make  the  steel  harder  than  water  of  70°  or 
100°,  which  is  generally  used  in  the  blacksmith's 
shop.  To  increase  the  hardness  of  steel,  without 
being  obliged  to  expose  it  to  an  injuriously  high  heat, 
it  may  be  plunged  into  mercury,  which  gives  it  a 
high  degree  of  hardness,  because  it  cools  more  ra- 
pidly. After  quicksilver,  follow  a  solution  of  salt,  or 
water  slightly  acidulated  by  sulphuric  or  other  acid. 
Spring  or  hard  water  imparts  more  hardness  than 
river  or  rain-water.  Oil  and  fat  leave  the  steel  softer 
than  rain-water;  and  cooling  in  sand,  or  between 
cold  iron,  as  in  the  jaws  of  a  vice,  or  cooling  in  air, 
either  in  motion  or  at  rest,  have  all  been  tried,  and 
impart  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  hardness,  accord- 
ing to  the  order  of  their  enumeration.  Steel  heated 
to  its  highest  point,  and  plunged  in  the  coldest  me- 
dium, becomes  what  is  called  glass-hard ;  that  is,  it 
will  scratch  glass ;  but  it  is  usually  very  brittle. 

Not  only  the  cooling  medium,  and  the  heat  of  the 
Bteel,  but  the  manner  in  which  the  refrigeration  is 
performed,  have  influence  upon  the  hardness  and 
tenacity  of  the  steel.  If  hot  steel  is  thrown  to  the 


£88  MANUFACTURE     OF     STEEL. 

bottom  of  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  it  does  not  assume 
a  high  degree  of  hardness ;  but  if  a  rapid  motion  is 
given  to  it,  it  speedily  becomes  hard,  and  the  hard- 
ness increases  with  the  rapidity  of  the  motion.  Large 
pieces  of  steel,  which  have  to  acquire  a  high  degree 
of  hardness,  are  refrigerated  under  a  rapid  current 
of  water,  which  falls  upon  it  from  a  certain  height. 
The  best  swords  at  present  manufactured  are  hard- 
ened by  giving  them  a  rapid  motion  in  the  atmo- 
sphere. Several  kinds  of  saws,  and  other  articles 
of  steel,  are  hardened  by  simply  hammering  them. 
Engravers'  tools,  if  made  of  good  steel,  assume  the 
finest  edge  or  point  by  being  hammered  with  quickly 
repeated  strokes  of  a  very  small  hammer,  upon  the 
edge  which  is  to  form  the  cutting  point. 

TEMPERING. 

The  fact  that  each  variety  of  steel  requires  a  dif- 
ferent degree  of  heat  for  hardening  it,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  estimating  that  heat,  because  there  is  no  way 
of  measuring  it,  has  given  rise  to  the  operation  of 
tempering.  The  steel  is  therefore  heated  to  the  high- 
est degree  which  it  can  bear  without  being  perma- 
nently injured,  and  is  then  cooled  so  as  to  impart  to 
it  the  greatest  hardness.  It  is  then  ground  or  pol- 


NATURE    OF    STEEL.  189 

ished  so  as  to  show  a  bright  surface,  and  gently  re- 
heated until  the  bright  surface  shows  a  certain  colour. 
The  colours  produced  by  the  increasing  heat  on  the 
bright  surface  are,  in  succession,  yellow,  brown,  pur- 
ple, light-blue,  dark-blue,  and  black.  These  shades 
are  used  for  the  following  purposes:  yellow  for 
lancets,  razors,  penknives,  cold-chisels,  and  miners' 
tools ;  brown  for  scissors,  chisels,  axes,  carpenters' 
tools,  and  pocket-knives;  purple  for  table-knives, 
saws,  swords,  gun-locks,  drill-bits  and  bore-bits  for 
iron  and  metals ;  and  blue  for  springs,  small  swords, 
&c.  Articles  which  are  to  be  softer  are  made  still 
darker ;  but  when  the  black  shade  is  reached,  the 
steel  is  annealed  and  soft.  These  colours  are  the 
result  of  oxidation.  The  increasing  thickness  of  the 
film  of  oxide  which  accumulates  on  the  bright  surface 
of  the  steel  is  less  and  less  transparent  as  the  heat 
increases.  The  character  or  composition  of  the  oxide 
is  in  all  cases  the  same. 

In  a  blacksmith's  shop,  the  tempering  is  generally 
done  by  heating  the  object,  if  a  chisel  or  pickaxe, 
from  the  heavy  part  towards  the  edge ;  and  when  the 
heat  moves  towards  the  edge,  and  has  imparted  the 
desired  colour,  the  instrument  is  suddenly  plunged 
into  cold  water,  to  arrest  further  tempering.  The 
thick  part  is  thus  not  only  tempered,  but  annealed, 


190  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

because  it  is  heated  beyond  tempering.  This  mode 
of  tempering  tools  is  practical,  and  based  on  correct 
principles ;  but  it  requires  care  on  the  part  of  the 
blacksmith  that  he  does  not  go  beyond  the  colour 
which  he  intends  to  impart.  The  degree  of  hardness 
is  tested  by  scratching  the  article  with  a  file ;  but  the 
test  is  uncertain,  and  shows  merely  if  the  hardening 
is  too  soft,  but  not  if  it  is  too  hard. 

Sometimes  the  tempering  is  performed  by  covering 
the  steel  with  a  film  of  oil  or  fat,  and  heating  the 
steel  until  this  oil  or  fat  is  inflamed.  This  is  a  very 
imperfect  method,  and  cannot  be  depended  upon  ;  it 
generally  makes  the  steel  too  soft.  Small  objects 
are  very  well  tempered  by  putting  the  steel  between 
the  jaws  of  the  fire-end  of  a  pair  of  blacksmith's 
tongs,  which  are  heated  beyond  the  tempering  point. 
As  soon  as  the  steel  shows  the  desired  colour,  it  is 
dropped  in  cold  water.  This  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
most  successful  methods  of  tempering  steel. 

A  somewhat  scientific,  but  at  present  not  much 
practised  mode  of  tempering,  is  to  heat  the  glass- 
hard  steel  in  a  bath  of  fusible  metal,  kept  at  a  cer- 
tain heat,  the  objects  being  laid  on  an  iron  plate. 
This  way  is  best  adapted  to  temper  knife-blades  and 
saw-blades  in  masses ;  but  we  should  hesitate  to  re- 
commend it  for  general  use. 


NATURE    OF    STEEL.  191 


CHARACTERISTICS    OF    STEEL. 

The  signs  by  which  to  distinguish  good  from  bad 
steel  are  very  difficult  to  describe ;  however,  we  shall 
endeavour  to  do  so.  If  there  is  an  opportunity  of 
forging  some  of  the  steel,  it  is  advisable  to  do  so ; 
for  there  is  no  better  means  of  ascertaining  its  true 
nature.  A  bar  is  gently  heated  to  cherry-red,  and 
drawn  out  into  a  gradually  tapering  square  point. 
The  operative  who  performs  this  labour,  if  familiar 
with  working  in  steel,  will  judge  of  the  quality  from 
the  manner  in  which  it  forges.  If  it  is  cast-steel,  it 
forges  harder  than  any  other ;  after  this  follows  good 
German  steel,  then  shear-steel,  and  at  last  blistered 
steel.  Hard  wrought-iron  is  the  softest.  If  the  trial 
is  performed,  and  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  want 
of  experience,  the  forged  point  is  heated  to  cherry- 
red,  and  cooled  in  cold  water;  if  possible,  ice  or 
snow-water.  After  this  hardening  it  is  tried  by  a 
file,  and,  if  it  should  be  found  to  be  soft,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  it  is  either  iron  or  German  steel.  It 
is  then  heated  again  to  a  higher  degree  of  heat,  and 
hardened;  if  it  is  not  hard  after  this  heat,  which 
may  be  a  white  heat,  it  is  iron.  In  either  case,  the 
steel  is  to  have  a  uniform  heat ;  for  the  thin  point 
17 


192  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

•will  naturally  be  hotter  than  the  thicker  portions. 
The  hardened  point  is  then  screwed  between  the  jaws 
of  a  vice,  and  just  enough  broken  off  to  show  the 
fracture.  The  power  used  in  breaking  forms  the 
rule  by  which  to  judge  of  the  tenacity  of  the  steel 
under  trial.  The  broken  point  may  be  tried  by 
crushing  it  under  the  face  of  a  hardened  hammer, 
when  laid  upon  a  dull  but  hard  file.  If  the  steel  is 
good,  it  will  resist  the  crushing,  and  will  cut  the 
hammer-face  and  the  file.  The  degree  of  resistance 
of  this  grain  of  steel  to  the  crushing  power  is  the 
best  rule  by  which  to  judge  of  it ;  for  many  kinds  of 
steel  feel  hard  to  the  file,  and  even  cut  glass,  or  other 
hardened  steel,  and  yet  show  no  tenacity.  Here  we 
find  the  true  criterion  of  good  cast-steel,  and  natural 
or  German  steel.  The  latter  may  be  as  hard  as  the 
first,  but  is  never  as  tenacious  when  glass-hard.  As 
tenacity  in  steel  is  of  greater  importance  than  hard- 
ness, it  is  an  object  to  attend  to  this  trial  most  care- 
fully. Hard  iron  will  be  found  to  be  easily  ground 
to  dust  in  the  experiment.  Some  kinds  of  steel,  par- 
ticularly those  which  have  been  forged  a  great  deal, 
or  which  never  had  much  carbon,  or  in  which  other 
matters  predominate  over  carbon,  will  not  bear  to  be 
drawn  into  fine  points.  It  may  be  quite  strong  when 
in  large  pieces,  or  even  tenacious ;  but  still  it  will 


NATURE    OF    STEEL.  193 

that  is  not  sufficient.  Steel  which  is  really  good  will 
take  a  fine  point,  and  be  tenacious  if  not  tempered, 
unless  it  has  been  overheated.  If  the  steel  will  not 
take  a  point,  it  of  course  will  not  receive  an  edge, 
and  is  therefore  useless  for  any  of  the  finer  articles 
of  manufacture.  The  white  crude  steel-iron  of  the 
Germans  is  harder  in  a  body  than  the  hardest  cast- 
steel,  or  the  hardest  German  steel ;  but  it  will  not 
take  a  strong  point,  nor  receive  a  fine,  smooth  edge. 

The  marks  by  which  to  know  good  steel,  by  sight, 
sound,  or  strength,  are  fallacious,  and  cannot  be  de- 
pended upon  unless  assisted  by  long  experience  ;  and 
even  then  the  result  is  always  uncertain.  The  fresh 
fracture  of  steel  is  of  a  silver-grey  colour,  inclining 
in  many  instances  to  white,  particularly  in  shear  and 
German  steel.  Certain  kinds  of  cold-short  wrought- 
iron  have  a  similar  appearance  and  bright  fracture ; 
but  they  are  far  from  being  steel. 

Hardened,  refined,  or  much-forged  steel  is  always 
more  bright  in  its  fracture  than  cast,  annealed,  or 
tempered  steel.  The  lustre  of  a  fresh  fracture  in 
steel,  however,  is  as  uncertain  as  its  colour.  Phos- 
phorus and  silicon  have  the  property  of  imparting  a 
rich  lustre  to  iron  as  well  as  steel,  and  hence  the  dif- 
ficulty of  distinguishing  steel  by  this  test.  Hard- 
ened steel  has  more  lustre  than  that  which  is  tern- 


194  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

pered,  and  hammered  steel  more  than  that  which  is 
annealed.  Cast-steel  not  hardened  frequently  shows 
a  fracture  similar  to  that  of  fine-grained  cast-iron. 
Baltimore  pig-iron  has  more  the  appearance  of  goo^ 
cast-steel  in  its  fracture,  than  many  kinds  of  shea* 
and  natural  steel. 


TEXTURE. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  steel  is  its  tex- 
ture, or  grain.  The  grain  of  good  steel,  when  hard- 
ened or  soft,  is  uniformly  round  when  viewed  through 
the  microscope ;  no  flickering  of  light,  as  if  broken 
by  the  planes  of  small  crystals,  is  visible.  The  frac- 
ture shows  a  velvety  uniformity,  of  a  more  or  less 
white  colour,  and  of  more  or  less  lustre ;  but  always 
of  great  regularity  and  uniformity ;  no  spots  which 
are  more  bright  or  more  dull  than  others. 

Good  steel  does  not  look  like  mottled  cast-iron,  or 
cold-short  bar-iron.  The  fracture  of  good  steel  has 
the  appearance  of  deadened  silver ;  it  is  of  a  uniform 
colour,  grain  and  lustre,  with  the  entire  absence  of 
sparkling  particles. 


NATURE    OF    STEEL.  195 


SOUND 

Is  a  characteristic  of  steel.  A  well-forged  and 
polished  rod  of  sound  steel,  when  suspended  by  one 
end  and  struck  by  any  hard  substance,  emits  a  sono- 
rous, silvery  tone.  Iron  does  not  possess  this  sound  : 
fibrous  iron  gives  out  a  dull,  unpleasant  sound ;  cold- 
short iron  is  more  sonorous,  but  still  there  is  no  com- 
parison between  it  and  the  silvery  tone  of  a  well- 
forged  bar  of  steel.  Hardened  steel  is  less  distinct 
in  this  quality ;  and  tempered  steel  emits  but  a  dull, 
shingling  sound,  like  a  broken  bell,  or  cracked  porce- 
lain. German  steel,  as  brought  into  market,  is  also 
inferior,  because  all  this  steel  is  chilled  before  being 
packed ;  it  is,  however,  in  all  instances,  inferior  in 
sound  to  cast-steel. 


COHESION 

Is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  qualities  and  the 
greatest  merit  of  good  steel.  The  absolute  cohesion 
of  good  steel  is  twice  as  great  as  that  of  the  best  bar- 
iron,  or  120,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch ;  of  good 
cast-steel,  even  150,000  pounds.  We  refer  to  an- 
nealed and  forged  or  tempered  steel.  Glass-hardened 


196  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

steel  bears  less  weight  than  forged  steel ;  but  the 
hardened  and  tempered  steel  bears  still  more.  Steel 
which,  when  glass-hardened,  bears  but  100,000 
pounds,  will,  if  tempered,  bear  130  or  150,000. 
Good  cast-steel  is  here  again  preferable  to  any  other. 
What  has  been  said  of  the  absolute  cohesion  of  steel 
may  also  be  said  of  its  relative  cohesion ;  it  is  far 
superior  in  this  respect  to  either  wrought  or  cast-iron. 

ELASTICITY. 

The  most  remarkable  quality  of  steel  is  its  elasti- 
city ;  it  is  in  this  respect  superior  to  any  other  ma- 
terial, India  rubber  not  excepted.  A  good  spring, 
made  of  good  steel,  will  last  for  centuries,  in  constant 
use,  without  losing  its  flexibility.  A  good  Damascus 
blade  will  bear  any  amount  of  bending,  without  de- 
viating the  smallest  fraction  from  its  original  form, 
when  the  bending  force  is  relaxed.  Good  cast-steel, 
well  worked,  will  do  the  same ;  but  its  curvature  is 
more  limited,  and  it  is  more  brittle,  than  Damascus 
steel.  A  clock  or  watch-spring,  being  always  on  the 
extreme  of  flexure,  will  last  for  years,  or  even  cen- 
turies, without  being  deteriorated  to  an  appreciable 
extent. 


NATURE    OF    STEEL.  197 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 

The  specific  gravity  of  steel  is  between  7.5  and 
7.9,  according  to  quality  and  treatment.  Hardened 
is  not  so  heavy  as  tempered  steel ;  well-forged  steel 
is  the  heaviest.  Very  much  in  this  respect  depends 
upon  the  quality  of  the  steel.  The  best  qualities  are 
most  subject  to  these  expansions  and  contractions  by 
hardening. 

The  mode  of  working  steel,  also,  has  an  influence 
upon  this  fluctuation.  If  steel  is  made  too  hot,  or  the 
difference  between  the  heat  of  the  steel  and  the  me- 
dium of  refrigeration  is  too  great,  for  a  certain  kind 
of  steel,  it  will  expand  a  great  deal  in  hardening ; 
but,  if  hardened  by  the  proper  heat,  its  expansion 
will  be  quite  small. 

FUSIBILITY    OF    STEEL. 

The  heat  by  which  steel  fuses  is  very  variable ;  but 
all  kinds  of  steel  melt  at  a  practicable  heat.  The 
finest  cast-steel  melts  at  a  lower  heat  than  any  other 
steel,  and  the  German  spring-steel  requires  the  high- 
est heat — too  high  a  heat  for  the  best  crucibles. 
We  may  assume  that  cast-steel  melts  at  2700°,  blis- 
tered and  shear-steel  rather  higher,  and  natural  steel 
at  3500°. 


198  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 


THE    WELDING    PEOPERTIES 

Of  steel  are  in  many  respects  very  decided,  but 
vary  in  the  degree  of  heat.  The  heat  which  is  re- 
quired to  weld  German  steel,  to  itself  or  to  iron,  is 
sufficient  to  convert  cast-steel  into  cast-iron.  The 
welding  of  two  pieces  of  cast-steel  is  a  matter  of  some 
difficulty ;  hut  it  may  be  welded  to  iron,  by  the  help 
of  a  little  borax,  which  is  sprinkled  on  the  joining 
surfaces  to  remove  scales  of  oxide.  Spring  or  shear- 
steel,  and  natural  steel,  may  be  welded  to  themselves, 
or  one  to  the  other,  or  to  iron,  just  as  we  choose. 
The  heat  applied  in  these  cases  is  to  be  given  with 
caution,  to  avoid  the  burning  of  the  carbon  ;  for  that 
would  injure  the  quality  of  the  steel.  Sand  or  dry 
clay  should  be  sprinkled  over  the  hot  steel,  to  pro- 
tect it  against  the  direct  attacks  of  the  blast.  When 
iron  and  steel  are  to  be  welded  together,  the  iron  is 
always  nearest  the  intense  heat  or  blast ;  the  steel  is 
held  in  the  more  subdued  fire.  •  If  steel  is  heated  too 
often  or  too  intensely,  it  is  transformed  into  iron,  and 
frequently  bad  iron.  Forging  delays,  but  cannot 
prevent  this  result. 


NATURE     OF     STEEL.  199 


MAGNETISM 

Is  more  tenaciously  retained  by  steel  than  by  iron. 
The  latter  absorbs  it  most  quickly,  but  does  not  re- 
tain it  well ;  the  former  absorbs  it  slowly,  but  retains 
it  for  years.  The  finest  steel  is  more  qualified  to 
retain  magnetism  than  any  other;  and  steel  of  a 
dark-blue  colour  is  superior  to  glass-hardened  or  ham- 
mered steel.  The  most  uniform  steel  in  hardness, 
texture,  tenacity,  and  fineness  of  grain,  is  the  best 
for  magnetic  instruments ;  and  cast-steel  is  of  course 
to  be  preferred  to  any  other. 


APPENDIX. 


IN  our  last  chapter  we  have  enumerated  the  various 
qualities  of  steel,  and  their  characteristics,  in  a  con- 
cise form,  to  hring  the  subject  properly  before  our 
readers.  We  shall  now  proceed  to  take  a  philosophi- 
cal view  of  the  matter. 

Steel  is  certainly  iron ;  but  it  has  less  impurities 
or  foreign  admixtures  than  cast-iron,  with  more  car- 
bon and  less  of  other  impurities  than  most  kinds  of 
wrought-iron.  We  cannot  say  that  steel  is  simply  a 
carburet  of  iron ;  that  is  not  true ;  for  it  contains, 
besides  iron  and  carbon,  many  other  ingredients. 
Steel,  as  it  improves  in  quality,  gradually  increases 
the  number  of  its  component  parts.  These,  at  first 
sight  apparent  impurities,  belong  to  its  nature,  and 
constitute,  in  proper  connection  with  iron,  the  cha- 
racter of  the  steel.  The  best  and  finest  steel,  such 
as  first-rate  cast-steel,  contains  the  largest  quantity 

(200) 


APPENDIX.  201 

of  alloyed  admixtures ;  these  make  the  steel  fusible, 
but  at  the  same  time  impair  its  capacity  to  resist  the 
action  of  heat  without  melting.  Such  steel  cannot 
be  welded  to  itself,  or  but  with  difficulty,  and  falls  to 
pieces  like  cast-iron  when  struck  by  a  hammer  in  a 
temperature  at  or  beyond  cherry-red.  Blistered, 
shear,  spring,  and  file-steel,  and  similar  kinds,  con- 
tain fewer  impurities  than  cast-steel.  But  these  de- 
scriptions of  steel  melt  with  great  difficulty  in  a  cru- 
cible, and  are  never  so  tenacious,  fine-grained,  and 
durable  as  cast-steel.  German,  Damascus,  and  simi- 
lar qualities  of  steel  contain  a  still  smaller  amount 
of  foreign  matter ;  they  have  body,  and  resist  fire  as 
well  as  wrought-iron ;  but  they  have  not  the  fineness 
of  cast-steel.  They  are  not,  therefore,  so  capable 
of  receiving  a  fine  edge ;  nor  are  they  so  tenacious 
as  cast-steel. 

If  steel  is,  according  to  this,  an  impure  iron,  and 
a  very  impure  iron,  too,  we  are  not  to  conclude  that 
any  impure  iron  will  make  steel,  or  that  impure  iron 
ought  to  make  good  steel.  It  is  neither  the  amount 
nor  the  quality  of  foreign  matter  combined  with  iron 
which  converts  it  into  steel ;  "  it  is  the/onw  in  which 
foreign  matter  is  combined  with  iron,  which  consti- 
tutes steel."  Every  atom  of  the  constitutional  ele- 
ments of  steel  is  to  be  combined  with  its  fellow  atom, 


202  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

BO  as  to  form  a  well  organized  atom  of  steel  —  not  to 
form  an  atom  of  iron,  then  an  atom  of  iron  and  car- 
bon, and  then  a  third  atom  of  iron,  carbon  and  sili- 
con, or  other  matter ;  and  these  incongruous  atoms 
grouped  together  in  an  irregular  form.  An  atom  of 
iron,  which  is  alone,  and  is  not  combined  with  its 
ratio  of  other  matter,  is  soft  —  is  of  another  nature 
than  its  neighbour  atom,  which  is  combined  with  such 
elements  as  impart  hardness  to  the  combination. 
All  the  alloys  are  more  hard  than  the  elements  of 
which  they  are  composed;  and  so  it  is  with  the 
alloys  of  iron.  Pure  iron  is  very  refractory ;  this 
causes  the  difficulty  of  fusing  it  as  perfectly  as  other 
alloys,  and  it  is  therefore  less  uniform.  Hence  steel 
of  impure  iron  is  apt  to  be  brittle  or  tender,  and  will  not 
take  a  fine  edge.  Iron,  such  as  cast-iron  —  and,  in 
fact,  any  other  alloy — if  it  contains  too  much  of 
alloyed  matter,  is  brittle.  If  it  contains  too  much 
carbon,  as  in  crude  steel,  it  is  very  brittle.  If  sili- 
con, phosphorus,  and  other  matter  predominate,  we 
always  see  brittle  iron.  Where  the  elements  of  com- 
position are  well  balanced,  we  generally  find  the  iron 
tough,  soft,  and  of  good  quality.  Scotch  pig-iron  is 
one  of  the  most  impure  kinds  of  iron  manufactured 
in  the  world;  still,  it  has  qualities  which  make  it 
superior  to  any  other  iron  as  a  foundry  metal.  Iron 


APPENDIX.  203 

smelted  of  some  kinds  of  bog-ore,  and  by  charcoal, 
frequently  contains  but  one  or  two  per  cent,  of  phos- 
phorus and  carbon,  and  still  is  so  brittle  as  to  be  use- 
less for  any  purpose  save  shot.  If  to  such  brittle  iron 
we  add  sulphur,  copper,  calcium,  or  similar  matter,  it 
improves  in  strength  and  utility.  These  are  the  rea- 
sons why  a  composition  of  various  kinds  of  ore,  melt- 
ed together,  make  a  stronger  iron  than  a  majority  of 
the  ores,  melted  singly,  would  indicate.  The  same 
reasons  explain  why  the  quality  and  strength  of 
wrought-iron  is  greater  when  compounded,  in  refining 
it,  of  various  kinds  of  pig-iron.  The  composition  is 
in  all  instances  stronger  than  the  average  sum  of 
strength  of  each  kind  of  iron  refined  by  itself. 

Steel  is  iron  alloyed  with  other  matter ;  and  no- 
thing can  impart  a  more  correct  idea  of  the  nature 
of  steel,  than  the  nature  of  alloys  generally.  These 
always  fuse  at  less  than  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
fusing  heat  of  the  metals  separately.  Thus,  pure 
iron  is  infusible ;  but  an  alloy  of  ninety  parts  of  iron 
and  ten  of  gold  is  almost  as  fusible  as  gold  itself. 
Pure  iron,  we  repeat,  is  infusible,  and  carbon  is  infu- 
sible ;  but  when  alloyed,  they  melt  readily  at  a  prac- 
ticable heat.  Silicon  is  infusible ;  but  when  com- 
bined with  pure  iron  and  carbon,  the  mass  melts  very 

readily.     Five  parts  of  lead,  three  of  tin,  and  eight 

18 


204  MANUFACTURE     OF     STEEL. 

of  bismuth,  melted  together,  dissolve  in  boiling  water; 
while  the  mean  degree  of  the  melting  heat  of  tho 
component  parts  is  514°,  or  nearly  a  cherry-red  heat. 
Almost  all  the  alloys  are  malleable  when  cold,  but 
brittle  when  hot ;  there  are  but  few  exceptions  to  this 
rule.  This  quality  of  the  alloys  is  very  distinct  in 
bronze,  but  still  more  in  cast-iron.  There  are  some 
kinds  of  anthracite  pig-iron  which  are  very  tenacious 
when  cold,  but  which,  in  a  cherry-red  heat,  cannot 
bear  their  own  weight.  There  is  a  charcoal  cast-iron 
used  in  Pittsburgh,  of  which  turnings  ten  feet  long 
may  be  cut,  but  which,  at  a  cherry-red  heat,  drops  to 
pieces  by  its  own  weight.  If  such  iron  is  freed  of 
the  greater  part  of  its  alloyed  matter,  or  if  it  is  con- 
verted into  wrought-iron,  it  is  as  tenacious  when 
almost  at  the  welding  heat,  as  when  cold. 

Many  alloys  consist  of  definite  equivalents  of  the 
single  or  component  parts ;  and  it  may  be  assumed 
that  a  definite  relation  between  metals  exists  in  all 
instances,  the  same  as  the  law  of  equivalents  through- 
out chemistry  and  nature.  It  appears  that  peculiar 
properties  belong  to  the  rational  compounds,  which 
are  not  so  definitely  expressed  in  the  accidental  com- 
position. 

The  law  of  combination  of  different  metals  is  ex- 
emplified and  has  been  observed  in  a  number  of  cases. 


APPENDIX.  205 

Brass  composed  of  definite  equivalents,  atom  of  cop- 
per to  atom  of  zinc,  when  alloyed,  is  a  far  superior 
metal  to  that  kind  of  brass  which  is  not  compounded 
according  to  this  law.  There  are  at  present  but  very 
few  instances  of  definite  compounds  investigated ; 
but  it  is  in  all  cases  strongly  indicated  that  a  rational 
compound  is  natural  in  all  instances. 


THE     HARDNESS 

Of  alloys  is  generally  greater  than  that  of  their 
component  parts.  A  slight  admixture  of  soft  tin, 
say  ten  per  cent.,  renders  copper  very  hard  and  tena- 
cious. If  the  amount  is  more  than  one  atom  of  tin 
to  one  atom  of  copper,  the  alloy  of  these  two  of  the 
most  malleable  metals  is  so  brittle  as  to  have  hardly 
any  cohesion.  One  atom  of  tin  to  one  of  copper  is 
the  metal  of  which  Lord  Rosse's  specula  are  made ; 
it  is  as  hard  as  steel,  and  has  so  much  cohesion  as  to 
bear  working,  turning,  and  polishing.  Sixty  parts 
of  iron  and  forty  of  chromium  form  a  composition  as 
hard  as  diamond,  though  the  metals  separately  are 
not  hard. 

A  high  degree  of  hardness  may  be  imparted 
to  iron  and  steel  by  the  admixture  of  one-fourth  of 


206  MANUFACTURE    OP    STEEL. 

one  per  cent,  of  silver.  Copper  may  be  hardened 
externally  by  the  fumes  of  zinc  and  of  tin.  Carbon 
and  phosphorus  have  the  same  hardening  effect  upon 
soft  iron. 


THE  TENACITY,   MALLEABILITY  AND   DUCTILITY 

Of  the  single  metals  is  generally  impaired  in  their 
alloys ;  the  same  is  the  case  with  iron  and  its  alloys. 
More  information  on  this  subject  may  be  derived 
from  the  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Chemistry,"  by  James 
C.  Booth;  articles,  "Alloy"  and  "Affinity." 

An  opinion  expressed  by  eminent  metallurgists  on 
the  nature  of  steel,  namely,  the  hypothesis  that  the 
carbon  in  tempered  steel  is  a  mechanical  admixture, 
while  in  crude  white  iron  or  hardened  steel  it  is  a 
chemical  combination,  is  a  doctrine  to  which  we  can- 
not agree  at  the  present  time.  It  has  been  proved 
that  silicon  is  a  necessary  part  in  the  constitution  of 
steel.  It  has  also  been  found  that  iron,  in  forming 
steel,  which  contains  silicon,  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
arsenic,  and  similar  matter,  does  not  need  or  absorb 
as  much  carbon  as  if  the  iron  is  free  from  such  ad- 
mixtures. Carbon  may  be  replaced  in  steel  by  other 
matter. 

It  requires  more  than  common  sagacity  and  pene- 


APPENDIX.  207 

tration  to  perceive  the  difference  between  the  nature 
of  the  alloys  of  iron  in  the  annealed  state,  and  in 
their  hardened  condition.  To  assume,  however,  that 
the  iron  in  the  one  case  is  a  mechanical,  and  in  the 
other  a  chemical  combination,  caused  merely  by  the 
manner  and  time  of  cooling,  is  something  which  we 
cannot  believe  in. 

The  hardening  and  annealing  of  steel  is  a  pheno- 
menon of  great  interest,  and  rich  in  information ; 
but  it  is  not  a  singular  phenomenon ;  it  is  related  to 
those  of  the  same  nature  in  other  metals,  though  it 
differs  in  degree. 

We  do  not  commonly  say  that  brass  or  bronze,  when 
hammered,  change  from  a  mechanical  mixture  to  a 
chemical  alloy,  or  vice  versa.  The  same  phenomenon 
is  observed  here  as  in  tempering  or  hardening  steel. 
Bronze  or  brass  becomes  hard  in  hammering,  and  is 
softened  by  annealing,  just  like  steel.  More  analo- 
gous, however,  than  the  above  metals  to  steel,  is 
glass  ;  this,  when  heated  and  thrown  into  cold  water, 
becomes  very  brittle,  but  by  annealing  is  made  soft 
and  tenacious.  We  do  not  think  of  ascribing  this 
difference  in  the  nature  of  glass,  when  cooled  slowly 
or  suddenly,  to  the  alteration  of  its  constituent 
parts  to  such  an  extent  as  to  convert  it  from  a  me- 
chanical mixture  into  a  chemical  compound.  One 


208  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

of  the  essential  conditions  of  transforming  a  mecha- 
nical mixture  into  a  chemical  combination  is,  that  the 
atoms  are  liberated — that  the  mass  is  perfectly  fluid, 
so  that  an  interchange  of  atoms  may  be  possible. 
In  all  cases,  at  least  one  of  the  constituent  parts  is 
to  be  fluid,  or  in  a  gaseous  form,  or  a  change  from  a 
mechanical  to  a  chemical  constitution  is  of  course 
impossible.  Now,  if  we  admit  that  carbon  in  a  gas- 
eous form  may  combine  with  iron  chemically,  if  both 
in  combination  are  suddenly  cooled,  we  cannot  admit 
that  the  same  happens  in  glass ;  for  in  glass  there  is 
no  element  which  can  possibly  be  in  an  elastic  fluid, 
or  in  a  limpid  state.  Furthermore,  silex,  silver,  man- 
ganese, and  other  matter,  show  a  similar  relation  to 
carbon  as  iron ;  and  we  do  not  think  that  anybody 
would  assume  two  states  of  combination  between  iron 
and  silicon,  and  between  iron  and  silver ;  the  alloy 
may  be  soft  or  hard.  It  requires  also  a  strong  ima- 
gination to  believe  that  in  hammering  annealed  steel, 
a  change  from  a  mechanical  to  a  chemical  formation 
is  effected,  and  still  steel  is  hardened  quite  as  well 
by  hammering  as  by  refrigeration.  There  is  no  heat 
to  make  carbon  volatile. 

Speculations  like  the  foregoing  may  seem,  at  first 
sight,  but  a  waste  of  time,  and  of  no  practical  use ; 
such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  The  theory  or  science 


APPENDIX.  209 

of  any  art  is  always,  at  first,  based  on  hypothesis; 
of  the  truth  of  which  we  can  know  nothing  until  it  is 
demonstrated  by  experience.  The  nature  of  steel 
in  its  hardened  and  tempered  state  has  not  been,  and 
cannot  be,  based  upon  positive  facts;  we  have  to 
reason  by  analogy.  The  science  of  making  steel,  as 
well  as  the  investigation  of  its  nature,  is  therefore 
based,  and  will  be  always  based,  upon  hypothesis. 
The  nearer  that  hypothesis  is  to  the  true  state  of 
facts,  the  more  perfect  will  be  the  science,  and  the 
greater  will  be  the  advantages  derived  from  the  sci- 
ence in  the  art  of  manufacturing  steel.  Thus  far, 
science  has  been  of  very  little  assistance  to  this  im- 
portant branch  of  industry ;  the  whole  is  based  upon 
practice.  Why  is  this  so?  There  is  scarcely  any 
art  at  the  present  time  which  is  not  indebted  to  the 
researches  and  investigations  of  our  scientific  men. 
We  believe  that  the  whole  science  of  steel-making  is 
based  upon  a  false  foundation — upon  an  incorrect 
hypothesis. 

In  this  country,  steel-making  is  in  its  infancy ;  it 
has  in  no  way  advanced  so  fast  as  the  manufacture 
of  iron.  We  have  no  ore  which  is  almost  native 
steel,  like  the  Germans ;  nor  can  we  expend  as  much 
labour  in  making  iron  as  is  done  in  Sweden.  Our 
social  relations  do  not  admit  of  it,  and  nature  has  not 


210  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

favoured  us  with  similar  conditions.  Still,  we  have 
an  abundance  of  good  iron-ore,  and  a  supply  of  fuel 
unparalleled  in  the  known  world.  We  have  hands 
who  are  willing  to  work,  and  heads  which  are  able  to 
plan :  why  can  we  not  make  steel  ?  We  make  at 
present  nearly  eight  thousand  tons  per  annum ;  but 
that  is  little  in  comparison  with  what  is  consumed,  or 
would  be  consumed,  if  it  could  be  furnished  at  rea- 
sonable prices.  All  the  steel  we  now  make  is  used 
for  springs,  coarse  saw-blades,  and  files. 

The  manufacture  of  steel  is  necessarily  involved 
in  great  mystery.  All  practical  manufacturers  are 
agreed  that  good  iron  is  all  that  is  required  to  make 
good  steel.  The  art  is  simple  and  infallible,  if  the 
proper  ore  or  iron  is  at  hand.  The  ore  from  which 
the  Germans  make  their  steel  is  the  crystalline  car- 
bonate, or  sparry  ore,  which  they  possess  in  great 
purity.  The  making  of  steel  from  such  ore  is  very 
simple,  more  so  than  the  making  of  iron  from  the 
same  ore.  But  we  cannot  make  steel  in  the  German 
fashion,  as  we  have  no  such  ore,  nor  any  suitable  for 
the  purpose.  There  is  sparry  ore  in  Vermont,  North 
Carolina,  Missouri,  and  perhaps  in  other  States ;  but 
it  is  not  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  good  steel. 
Even  if  we  had  ore  like  the  German,  we  should  find 
that  their  process  is  not  suited  to  our  country. 


APPENDIX.  211 

The  wrought-iron  made  from  the  German  steel- 
ore  is  very  fibrous,  tenacious,  and  of  great  cohesion. 
The  Swedish  iron  of  which  English  steel  is  made, 
is  tender,  very  soft,  and  has  no  strength ;  it  is  al- 
most cold-short.  There  is  therefore  a  great  differ- 
ence in  the  constitution.  In  the  first  case,  German 
iron  is  the  result  of  decomposed  steel ;  the  crude 
steel,  or  a  part  of  it,  in  the  operation  of  refining, 
has  been  converted  into  iron.  In  the  latter  case, 
this  soft,  tender  Swedish  iron  is  converted  into  steel : 
and  the  softer  the  iron  has  been,  the  harder  and 
more  tenacious  is  the  steel,  provided  the  same  labour 
is  devoted  to  it.  It  is  a  fact  that  coke-iron  will  not 
make  good  steel,  if  treated  in  the  best  manner. 
Hot-blast  destroys  the  quality  of  iron  for  steel,  or, 
if  not  entirely,  greatly  injures  it,  even  in  the  best 
kinds  of  charcoal-iron.  Spring-steel  may  indeed  be 
made  of  hot-blast  and  impure  charcoal-iron ;  but  it 
will  not  have  much  strength,  nor  will  it  receive  a  fine 
edge.  Experience  has  shown  that  hot-blast  iron,  of 
the  same  ore  and  from  the  same  furnace,  is  much 
inferior  to  cold-blast ;  so  much,  that  nobody  would 
think  of  using  it  for  the  purpose  of  making  steel- 
iron.  In  Germany,  every  attempt  to  use  hot-blast 
iron  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  has  teen  attended 
with  ill-succoss. 


212  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

With  .these  facts  before  us,  we  think  it  not  difficult 
to  form  a  reasonable  hypothesis  on  the  nature  of 
steel ;  and  this  hypothesis  will  furnish  a  basis  upon 
which  the  art  of  making  steel  may  be  established 
more  successfully  than  by  the  old  theory. 

Pure  iron  is  very  soft,  malleable,  infusible,  and 
cannot  be  welded.  The  admixture  of  any  other  mat- 
ter makes  it  stronger,  harder,  and  fusible ;  and  a 
limited  admixture  imparts  to  it  the  quality  of  weld- 
ing. Iron  follows  the  same  law  as  any  other  metal, 
and  is  subject  to  similar  alterations  of  its  nature  by 
foreign  admixtures.  There  is  no  essential  difference 
between  iron,  and  other  metals  and  their  combina- 
tions, as  a  class  ;  but  there  is  a  difference  in  the  phe- 
nomena in  degree.  This  is  a  general  law  of  che- 
mistry, and  no  peculiarity  of  the  metals.  All  alloys 
of  metals,  as  we  have  said,  are  harder  than  the  mean 
hardness  of  their  elements ;  and  the  same  is  the  case 
with  iron.  We  may  say  that  carbon,  or  phosphorus, 
is  not  a  metal.  This  does  not  alter  the  case,  how- 
ever ;  for  phosphorus  and  carbon  impart  to  iron  the 
same  quality  as  silver,  arsenic,  chromium,  or  copper ; 
all  these  make  iron  hard,  and  so  does  silicon.  The 
only  difference  is  in  degree.  One-fourth  of  one  per 
sent,  of  phosphorus  or  silicon  makes  iron  more  brittle 
than  five  per  cent,  of  carbon,  or  ten  per  cent,  of  cop- 


APPENDIX.  213 

per.  All  alloys  of  iron,  without  exception,  are  brit- 
tle, when  combined  with  it  in  its  pure  state,  even  if 
they  make  steel  tenacious,  as  do  platinum  and  its 
kindred  metals.  Silicon  and  phosphorus  impart  to 
iron  the  highest  degree  of  brittleness,  and  also  of 
hardness ;  silicon  appearing  to  assume  the  first  rank. 
Hardness  and  tenacity  are  always  combined  where  a 
perfect  and  intimate  chemical  combination  has  been 
formed ;  this  is  a  law  throughout  art  and  nature. 
Imperfect  relations,  or  impure  crystals,  are  never 
tenacious,  never  hard;  where  uncombined  particles 
occur  between  the  legitimate  atoms  of  matter,  every 
quality  resulting  from  a  perfect  chemical  compound 
is  impaired.  A  mechanical  admixture  of  water  in 
any  crystal  impairs  its  lustre,  its  hardness,  and  its 
cohesion. 

Silicon  and  phosphorus  appear  to  be  related  to 
iron,  as  zinc  is  to  copper.  The  strongest  heat  can- 
not disengage  all  the  zinc  in  combination  with  cop- 
per ;  the  latter  will  always  retain  sixteen  per  cent, 
of  the  former.  By  chemical  means,  however,  we 
may  separate  them  perfectly.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  iron  and  silicon,  iron  and  phosphorus,  sulphur, 
and  almost  any  other  matter  in  combination  with 
iron.  Heat  alone  never  can  remove  sulphur  or  phos- 
phor1 is  entirely  from  iron  ;  for,  before  all  the  sulphur, 


214  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

which  is  known  to  be  very  volatile,  is  expelled, 
the  iron  crystallizes  for  want  of  sulphur,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  latter  is  enclosed  in  the  small  atomic 
crystals,  and  cannot  be  removed  until  the  crystal  is 
re-opened.  The  same  phenomenon  happens  with  any 
salt  dissolved  in  water,  or  in  its  mother-ley.  Silicon 
is  not  volatile,  and  for  that  reason  less  inclined  to  leave 
iron  than  any  other  matter ;  it  may  easily  be  seen  why 
it  is  so  difficult  to  separate  silicon  from  iron.  And 
as  silicon  makes  iron  very  hard  and  very  brittle,  it  is 
.BO  much  the  more  necessary  to  remove  it,  at  least  as 
much  as  possible,  before  we  can  expect  to  have  iron 
fit  for  making  steel.  We  must  be  careful  not  to  con- 
found silicon  and  silex ;  for  iron  may  contain  twenty 
per  cent,  of  silex,  and  be  perfectly  malleable,  soft, 
and  strong ;  still,  it  would  not  make  steel. 

Throughout  nature  a  law  prevails  that  all  matter 
of  one  kind  is  combined  in  certain  definite  propor- 
tions with  other  matter  of  a  different  kind,  to  form  a 
third  matter  of  still  another  kind.  If  two  or  more 
kinds  of  matter  are  not  combined  in  exactly  given 
proportions,  the  new  matter  formed  from  the  combi- 
nation is  imperfect.  Such  imperfect  matter  does  not 
show  that  beauty,  that  finish  in  all  its  parts,  which  it 
would  possess  if  the  elementary  or  combining  atoms 
were  in  exact  relation  to  their  affinities.  Such  an 


APPENDIX.  215 

imperfect  creation  is  impure,  is  abnormal.  If  such 
a  law  pervades  all  nature,  as  it  certainly  does  in 
every  instance,  why  should  iron  and  its  relative  mat- 
ter make  an  exception?  We  cannot  think  of  any 
exception  to  the  rule ;  indeed,  it  is  impossible  that 
there  should  be  any. 

In  the  case  before  us,  it  is  difficult  to  produce  a 
legitimate  combination  of  iron  with  other  matter. 
We  shall  endeavour  to  show  the  cause  of  this  diffi- 
culty, and  the  necessity  of  removing  it. 

Silicon  is  the  most  tenacious  adherent  of  iron  — 
its  best  friend ;  but  its  influence  is  so  great  in  mak- 
ing the  iron  hard  and  obstinate,  that  the  greater  part 
of  it  must  be  removed  if  we  want  the  iron  for  steel ; 
indeed,  we  may  say  all  which  it  is  practicable  to 
remove.  The  finest  steel  shows  but  one-eighth  of 
one  per  cent,  of  silicon,  and  often  less  than  that. 
Carbon,  sulphur  and  phosphorus  form  volatile  com- 
pounds with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere ;  these 
compounds  do  not  re-combine  with  iron,  and  are  very 
easily  expelled.  Silex,  the  oxidized  silicon,  is  not 
volatile;  nor  is  silicon  itself;  both  remain,  therefore, 
with  the  iron,  in  either  one  or  the  other  form.  All 
other  matter  increases  the  fusibility  of  iron ;  and  so 

does  silicon ;  but  almost  all  other  matter,  with  the 
19 


216  MANUFACTURE     OF     STEEL. 

exception  of  a  few  metals,  such  as  copper  or  silver, 
may  be  driven  off  by  heat,  or  oxidized  and  evapo- 
rated. Silicon  remains  last  of  all ;  and  its  admix- 
ture will  have  the  effect  of  keeping  the  atoms  of  iron 
separate,  or  keeping  the  metal  in  a  fluid  state,  until 
the  silicon  is  oxidized  and  removed.  The  great  co- 
hesive power  of  the  iron  particles  will  congeal  the 
fluid  iron  compound  before  all  the  silicon  or  silex  can 
be  removed.  It  may  therefore  be  asserted  that  no 
iron,  no  matter  how  it  is  manufactured,  is  entirely 
free  from  silicon  or  silex  ;  because  most  of  the  iron-ore 
contains  silex,  the  walls  of  the  furnaces  contain  silex, 
all  fuel  contains  it,  and  fluxes  and  slag  are  not  free 
from  it.  Silicon  makes  iron  hard  —  silex  does  not; 
iron  may  be  strong  and  tenacious,  and  contain  much 
silex  ;  but  it  would  not  answer  for  the  better  qualities 
of  steel.  Silex  can  be  in  wrought  and  cast-iron,  but 
not  in  steel,  and  much  less  in  hardened  steel ;  for  it 
will  inevitably  be  converted  into  silicon  by  the  car- 
bon of  the  steel.  We  must  not  conclude,  therefore, 
that  soft,  fine,  strong  bar-iron  is  any  more  fit  for 
conversion  into  steel  than  even  cold-short,  worthless 
iron.  The  qualification  of  iron  for  steel  cannot  be 
correctly  judged  of  from  its  appearance;  it  can  only 
be  ascertained  by  actual  trial,  and  careful  chemical 
analysis. 


APPENDIX.  217 

Experience  shows  that  the  best  steel  contains  the 
largest  number  of  components,  the  greatest  variety 
of  matter.  Silicon,  sulphur,  phosphorus  and  arsenic 
are  as  necessary  elements  in  the  constitution  of  steel 
as  is  carbon.  Good  steel  may  be  made  by  simply 
adding  carbon  to  wrought-iron ;  but  then  the  quality 
of  the  steel  will  depend  upon  the  chemical  composition 
of  the  iron  used.  We  lay  it  down  as  a  principle,  that 
the  combination  of  iron  with  other  matter  to  form 
steel  is  to  be  a  true  compound  of  multiples ;  and  we 
assert  further  that  the  best  steel  is  the  result  of  such 
a  combination,  and  the  greatest  number  of  the  com- 
pound elements.  The  latter  part  of  the  above  de- 
claration has  been  proved  by  experience ;  the  first 
part  is  a  true  deduction  from  the  works  of  the  Crea- 
tor. There  is  no  finished  form  in  the  whole  range 
of  the  creation  but  is  the  result  of  multiples  of  equal 
spase,  filled  with  matter  of  various  kinds. 

In  converting  iron  into  steel,  we  have  to  combine 
it  with  such  quantities  of  other  matter  as  to  form  of 
one  or  more  atoms  of  iron,  one  atom  of  steel.  Steel 
is  a  new  metal ;  it  is  neither  iron,  glass,  carbon,  nor 
anything  but  steel ;  it  is  distinct  from  iron  and  all 
its  composing  elements.  Just  as  salt  is  distinct  from 
muriatic  acid,  and  distinct  from  soda,  so  steel  is 
distinct  from  iron,  or  carbon,  or  sulphur,  or  silicon, 


218  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

or  any  other  element.  If  ninety-nine  parts  of  pure 
iron  and  one  part  of  carbon  form  steel  —  we  make 
use  here  of  the  true  parts,  instead  of  the  equivalents, 
to  be  more  explicit  to  those  who  are  not  versed  in 
chemistry  —  ninety-eight  parts  of  iron  and  two  parts 
of  carbon  make  better  steel  than  the  first;  and 
ninety-seven  parts  of  iron  and  three  of  carbon  make 
cast-iron ;  we  are  compelled  to  keep  within  the  limits 
of  two  per  cent,  of  carbon,  if  we  want  to  form  steel. 
If  98  parts  of  iron,  1  of  carbon,  and  1  of  silicon, 
form  brittle,  hard  cast-iron ;  98  parts  iron,  1  £  car- 
bon, and  \  silicon,  form  steel ;  but  98  parts  iroYi, 
1£  carbon,  and  \  silicon,  form  better  steel.  We  have 
to  keep  within  the  limit  of  \  and  J  silicon,  if  we  want 
steel  at  all.  If  98  parts  iron,  1  carbon,  \  silicon 
and  $  sulphur,  make  rather  brittle  steel ;  98  parts 
iron,  \\  carbon,  \  silicon  and  f  sulphur,  make  a  bet- 
ter article  —  it  would  be  unwise  to  put  more  sul- 
phur in.  The  same  rule  which  guides  our  labours  in 
these  instances,  is  to  be  applied  in  all  cases.  Every 
addition  of  a  new  element  requires  an  alteration  in 
the  quantity  of  the  other  components. 

The  various  elements  do  not  combine  in  equal 
weights  with  iron,,  nor  in  equal  weights  among  them- 
selves, to  form  the  most  perfect  compound.  We 
have  no  experience  to  guide  us  in  determining  the 


APPENDIX.  219 

relative  quantities  of  the  various  elements  in  steel ; 
but  science  induces  the  conclusion  that  the  elements 
in  steel  must  be  combined  in  the  simple  or  compound 
ratios  of  their  atomic  weights.  Good  steel  must  ne- 
cessarily consist  of  one  or  more  atoms  of  iron,  one 
or  more  atoms  of  carbon,  silicon,  phosphorus,  and  the 
other  elements.  The  atomic  weight  of  iron  is  339.2, 
of  carbon  76.4,  of  arsenic  470,  of  azote  88.5,  of  cop- 
per 395.6,  manganese  345.0,  phosphorus  196.1,  sili- 
con 277.4,  and  sulphur  201.1.  All  these  elements, 
and  still  more,  have  been  found  in  steel.  They  can- 
not combine  in  single  atoms;  that  is  impossible; 
there  must  be  a  starting  point  somewhere.  If  we 
commence  with  silicon,  and  argue  that  1  atom  of  it 
combined  with  25  atoms  of  carbon,  the  ratio  of 
J  to  If  parts,  then  it  will  require  322  atoms  of  iron 
to  make  98  parts  of  iron.  If  such  are  the  combin- 
ing numbers  of  these  elements  to  form  good  steel,  it 
is  evident  that,  if  there  are  more  than  322  atoms  of 
iron  in  the  composition,  the  'product  will  be  a  mix^ 
ture  of  hard  steel  and  soft  iron,  which  of  course  will 
not  make  a  reliable  edge.  If  there  are  more  than 
25  atoms  of  carbon,  or  1  and  a  fraction  of  silicon, 
the  same  thing  will  happen  ;  for  neither  of  them  has 
any  combination  in  steel.  If  there  is  more  than  1  atom 
of  silicon  in  322  atoms  of  iron  which  is  to  be  con.- 


220  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

verted  into  blistered  steel,  we  can  well  manage  to  put 
25  atoms  or  If  per  cent,  of  carbon  into  it.  But  if  25 
atoms  of  carbon  and  1  atom  of  silex  form  the  best 
ratio  of  alloy  with  iron  to  make  steel,  it  is  evident 
that,  if  there  are  2  atoms  of  silicon  to  25  of  carbon, 
the  compound  is  not  good.  If,  in  this  instance,  we 
alloy  so  much  carbon  with  the  iron  as  to  produce  25 
atoms  of  carbon  to  1  of  silicon,  the  iron  will  be  con- 
verted into  good  cast-iron.  Here  we  are  impelled  to 
the  conclusion  that  similar  conditions  prevail  between 
all  the  elements  of  steel. 

We  have  it  in  our  power  to  put  as  much  other  mat- 
ter into  iron  as  we  please,  if  the  iron  is  pure ;  but 
it  is  not  in  our  power  to  combine  it  with  a  limited 
quantity  of  silicon ;  neither  is  it  possible  to  remove 
all  the  silex  from  the  iron,  in  the  practical  operations 
attending  its  manufacture.  As  the  amount  of  silicon 
is  to  be  very  limited  in  steel,  and  as  it  cannot  be  re- 
moved from  bar-iron  or  steel,  it  follows  that  its 
removal  is  to  be  accomplished  before  the  iron  is  put 
into  shape  for  conversion. 

From  the  foregoing  investigations,  we  are  led  to 
conclude  that  steel  is  a  definite  compound  of  iron 
and  other  matter,  and  that  silex  is  the  chief  obstacle 
io  the  formation  of  such  a  compound.  All  our  ener- 


APPENDIX.  221 

gies  are  therefore  to  be  directed  against  silicon,  or 
silex ;  because,  if  there  is  too  much  in  the  iron,  it 
will  degrade  the  steel.  There  never  can  be  too  little 
silex  in  iron  to  make  good  steel  of  it. 

How  far  practice  confirms  this  theory,  we  will  en- 
deavour to  show.  The  East  Indians,  in  making  their 
iron  for  wootz,  pound  the  ore  very  fine,  and  free  it 
by  washing,  as  far  as  possible,  from  all  impurities. 
They  then  -melt  it  in  a  small  furnace,  in  a  very  short 
time,  without  lime  or  other  fluxes,  and  obtain  but 
one-fifth  of  the  iron  which  the  ore  contains.  The 
remaining  four-fifths  are  converted  into  slag,  which 
absorbs  as  much  silex  as  its  constitution  will  admit 
of;  though  that  cannot  be  much,  as  the  ore  is  pure, 
and  the  cinder  has  therefore  to  absorb  its  silex  from 
the  charcoal  and  the  in-wall  of  the  furnace.  We  see 

% 

here  how  much  care  is  taken  to  remove  the  silex  at 
first,  and  the  immense  loss  of  iron  that  results  from 
its  removal. 

In  making  natural  steel  in  Germany,  the  same 
principles  are  carried  out,  though  not  to  so  great  an 
extent.  The  steel-ore  of  that  country  is  naturally 
pure ;  but  it  is  still  cautiously  selected  with  respect 
to  the  making  of  steel.  The  blast-furnaces  where 
these  ores  are  smelted  are  well  supplied  with  charcoal, 
and  in  most  cases  work  without  flux.  Limestone,  as 


222  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

a  flux,  is  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  Most  of  the  ores 
contain  a  large  amount  of  manganese,  which  fluxes  the 
silex,  and  is  in  all  cases  the  most  efficient  flux.  It  is 
a  generally  diffused  error  that  manganese  is  essen- 
tially necessary  to  manufacture  good  steel ;  there  is 
no  magnesium  found  in  any  steel ;  it  serves  in  every 
instance  to  absorb  the  silex. 

The  crude  iron  of  the  Germans,  which  is  highly 
purified,  and  contains  hardly  anything  but  iron,  car- 
bon and  silicon,  loses  in  the  first  operation  in  the 
forge,  where  it  is  converted  into  crude  steel,  twenty- 
five  per  cent.,  and  in  each  subsequent  refining  heat 
from  six  to  eight  per  cent. ;  so  that,  on  an  average, 
not  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  of  partly  iron  and  partly 
steel  are  obtained.  Probably  not  more  than  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  good  steel  could  be  obtained  from 
the  crude  iron. 

The  process  by  which  Swedish  bar-iron  is  made,  is 
that  which  is  in  general  use  in  this  country,  and  has 
already  been  described.  The  difference  in  quality  is 
chiefly  caused  by  crude  iron  and  labour.  Common 
Swedish  bar  is  not  particularly  good ;  we  have,  if  not 
superior,  at  least  equal  qualities  of  charcoal-iron, 
even  for  steel-works.  The  Swedish  and  Russian  iron 
of  which  common  shear-steel  is  made,  is,  however, 
more  uniform  and  pure  than  ours  —  the  consequence 


APPENDIX.  223 

of  more  labour  ind  material  spent  in  making  it. 
The  best  Swedish  iron,  that  of  which  the  finest  Eng- 
lish steel  is  made,  is  not  refined  in  what  is  called  the 
German  forge,  but  by  a  different  process.  The  forge- 
fire  is  not  lined  with  iron,  or  only  on  two  sides ;  very 
little  iron  is  melted  in  at  one  heat ;  no  slag,  scales 
or  ore  are  used  for  boiling ;  and  the  whole  process 
goes  on  with  great  slowness  and  regularity.  Much 
coal  is  used,  much  iron  wasted,  and  a  great  deal  of 
labour  spent  in  the  operation.  The  iron  is  very  supe- 
rior, however,  and  is  made  nowhere  but  in  the  uplands 
of  Sweden,  near  the  ore-mines  of  Danemora. 

The  burning  of  steel,  or  the  converting  process,  is 
as  well  conducted  in  this  country  as  in  any  other ; 
and  there  is  also  no  difficulty  in  melting  blistered 
steel,  as  well  as  tilting  shear-steel.  All  we  want  is 
pure  iron,  and  then  there  is  no  doubt  that  we  shall  be 
able  to  compete  with  the  world  in  making  steel. 

It  is  out  of  the  question  to  imitate  Sweden,  Rus- 
sia, Germany,  or  any  other  country,  in  making  iron 
or  steel.  We  should  cultivate  our  own  means,  with- 
out reference  to  their  method,  and  succeed  in  our  own 
way.  We  need  not  copy  the  processes  of  other  na- 
tions, no  matter  how  highly  cultivated  those  processes 
may  be.  Ours  are  peculiar  conditions,  and  in  no  way 
resemble  those  of  any  other  people. 


224  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

The  only  practicable  way  of  making  steel  in  this 
country  is,  first  to  make  blistered,  and  then  cast- 
steel,  as  is  now  done.  But  we  want  a  better  article 
than  is  made  at  the  present  time,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose we  want  better  iron.  There  ought  to  be  no  dif- 
ficulty on  this  score ;  for  we  have  extremely  cheap 
ore,  and,  in  spending  two  tons  of  ore  where  now  but 
one  is  used  for  the  same  amount  of  iron,  and  even 
more  than  that,  there  ought  to  be  no  difficulty  in  ob- 
taining any  quality  of  iron  we  desire.  The  magnetic 
ores  at  Lake  Champlain  are  not  surpassed  in  purity 
by  any  ore  in  the  world ;  indeed,  they  are  almost 
pure  iron ;  but  they  are  at  present  of  little  value. 
There  is  no  reason  why,  from  this  ore,  we  cannot 
make  iron  equal  to  the  best  Swedish,  and  we  could 
certainly  make  it  more  cheaply  than  we  can  import 
the  common  Swedish  bar.  Why  do  not  the  immense 
ore-beds  in  Essex  county,  New  York,  make  good 
steel-iron  ?  It  certainly  is  not  the  fault  of  the  ore ; 
for  that  is  of  a  very  superior  quality;  nor  can  it 
arise  from  any  scarcity  of  timber— that  also  is  found 
in  the  greatest  abundance.  New  Jersey  possesses 
large  deposites  of  material,  and  has  every  facility  for 
making  good  steel-iron;  yet  her  great  advantages 
are  not  improved. 

That  Missouri  and  Wisconsin  are  not  already  in 


APPENDIX.  225 

the  market  with  the  best  iron  in  the  United  States, 
may  be  excused  on  the  ground  of  the  infancy  of  the 
iron  business  in  those  States.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
they  could  relieve  us  from  the  contribution  we  at  pre- 
sent pay  to  Europe  for  good  iron ;  and  we  look  for- 
ward with  confidence  to  the  period  when  our  wants 
shall  be  supplied  from  those  States. 

Pennsylvania  is  the  only  State  where  steel  is  made 
to  any  extent ;  and  seven-eighths  of  the  whole  amount 
manufactured  in  the  United  States  is  made  by  her. 
This  is  a  little  remarkable,  as  Pennsylvania  is  not 
favoured  by  nature  for  this  quality.  That  State  is 
hardly  to  be  excelled  in  good  merchant  bar  and 
foundry  metal ;  but  her  hydrates,  pipe-ores,  and 
argillaceous  iron-stones,  are  not  at  all  qualified  for 
making  steel,  or  at  least  not  good  steel.  The  evil 
of  our  not  being  supplied  with  the  best  kind  of  steel- 
rods,  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  desire  of  reducing  ex- 
penses in  manufacturing.  The  finest  iron-ores  are 
wasted  to  make  blooms  worth  thirty-five  dollars  per 
ton;  while  the  judicious  expenditure  of  but  a  few 
dollars  more  would  convert  the  same  ore  into  an  iron 
equal  to  the  common  Swedish  or  Russian  bar. 

We  are  forced  to  the  conclusion,  from  all  we  have 
observed,  that  the  making  of  good  iron  is  not  gene- 
rally understood,  and  that  its  importance  is  vastly 


226  MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

under-rated.  We  consequently  suffer  under  a  heavy 
tax  to  Europe  for  steel  which  we  might  readily  make 
ourselves,  and  which  we  shall  have  some  hope  of 
making,  as  soon  as  our  manufacturers  relinquish  the 
vain  attempt  to  make  cast-steel  of  puddled  iron,  and 
natural  steel  of  anthracite  or  hot-blast  iron. 


IMPROVEMENTS  IN  STEEL. 


BY  A.  A.  FESQUET,  CHEMIST  AND  ENGINEER. 


GREAT  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  metallurgy  of 
iron,  and  especially  in  that  of  steel,  since  the  stereotyped 
edition  of  Overman's  work,  dated  1851.  We  will  try  to 
fill  up  the  gap  in  a  concise  way,  but  shall  not  attempt 
to  describe  all  the  processes  devised  or  patented,  since 
their  number  is  legion,  and  still  they  come.  We  shall 
confine  ourselves  to  the  description  and  to  an  examina- 
tion of  the  principal  methods  of  steel  fabrication,  which 
have  really  become  practical  manufacturing  processes. 

GENERALITIES. 

We  call  STEEL  a  compound,  combination,  or  alloy  of 
iron  with  carbon,  which  can  be  melted,  welded,  and 
drawn  out  under  the  hammer,  and  which  becomes  hard 
by  the  sudden  cooling  of  the  red  hot  metal  in  a  cold 
vehicle,  water  usually. 

20  227 


228  IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 

We  think  thai  the  fused  product  of  highly  cemented 
steel  mar  be  considered  as  the  standard  steel,  in  regard 
to  parity  and  constancy  of  composition.  Its  physical 


although  it  must  he  welded  at  a  low  temperature 
and  by  a  skilful  workman. 

Steels  above  it  in  hardness  and  in  amount  of  carbon, 
eeasetobeweldable.  They  are  harsh,  and  their  series 
goes  on  up  until  we  arrive  at  cast  inn.  Steels  below  it  in 
hardness  and  in  amount  of  carbon,  are  more  easily 
welded,  but  their  hardness  decrease*  until  they  ran  into 
wrooght-iron. 

Oar  standard  cart-steal,  from  highly  cemented  iron, 
ffflrtMB  on  an  average,  1  per  cent  of  carbon.  He  tool 
•leefc  most  generally  employed  in  the  arts  contain  from 
050  to  Oi75  of  1  per  cent  of  carbon. 

The  preceding  pages  and  the  above  lines  show  that 
aftmiiiaa  intermediary  product  between  cact  and  wrought 
iron,  with  fe*  carbon  and  fusibility  than  the  former,  and 
with  more  carbon  and  neater  fusibilitr  than  tl 


TWiafc™.  if  we  take  carbon  from  cast-iron,  or  add  car- 
bon to  wrooght-iron,  we  can  make  steeL  All  the  pro- 
«•»  of  manufactore  fellow  thk  rale, 

VARIOUS  METHODS  OP  STEEL  MANUFACTURE. 

Carbon  is  taken  from  pig-metal  a  the  German  process 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.  229 

of  natural  steel,  as  explained  by  Overman  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages.  By  the  fusion  in  the  low  hearth,  run  out 
fire,  bloomery,  or  fining  furnace,  the  air  of  the  blast 
burns  off"  part  of  the  carbon.  The  difficulty  of  main- 
taining a  perfect  constancy  in  the  blast,  in  the  rapidity 
of  the  fusion,  and  in  the  quality  of  the  pig-metal,  added 
to  the  greater  or  less  skill  and  attention  of  the  operator, 
explain  how  the  quality  and  composition  of  the  product 
must  vary.  Moreover,  the  fining,  that  is  to  say,  the  re- 
moval and  oxidization  of  the  foreign  matters,  is  not  so 
complete  as  when  wrought-iron  is  made ;  therefore,  the 
raw  material  itself  must  be  of  remarkable  purity. 

Puddled  steel  is  another  example  of  cast-iron  deprived 
of  part  of  its  carbon,  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  not  only 
by  the  air  of  the  flame,  but  also  by  the  oxygen  contained 
in  the  peroxides  of  iron  of  the  cinder,  which  covers  the 
molten  mass.  Here  again-,  the  fining  is  partial;  it  is 
difficult  to  stop  the  operation  at  precisely  a  given  time, 
and  a  pig-metal  of  the  first  quality  is  needed,  if  a  pro- 
duct of  some  value  be  expected.  Great  quantities  of 
puddled  steel  have  been  made,  and  continue  to  be  manu- 
factured, and  the  process  is  much'  cheaper  than  the  Ger- 
man method  for  natural  steel.  However,  it  is  to  be  ex- 
pected that  puddled  steel  will  be  replaced  by  other  kinds 
of  cheap  steel  made  by  more  recent  methods,  although  we 
believe  in  the  superiority  of  the  puddling  furnace  for  the 


230  IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

treatment  of  pig-metals  holding  a  large  proportion  of 
phosphorus.  The  want  of  success  of  the  process,  as  indi- 
cated in  the  foregoing  pages  by  Overman,  was  especially 
due  to  the  expectation,  since  then  so  many  times  re- 
peated, of  making  a  good  product  from  a  poor  material, 
by  an  incomplete  purification  or  fining.  It  is  wonderful 
how  difficult  it  is  for  people  to  understand  that,  the 
more  impure  a  material  is,  the  more  it  requires  to  be 
purified.  All  former  experience  seems  to  be  of  no  avail. 
For  many  iron  masters,  the  name  of  steel  implies  unblem- 
ished purity,  no  matter  from  what  material  or  in  what 
manner  the  article  has  been  prepared. 

We  may  diminish  the  proportion  of  carbon  in  pig- 
metal  by  an  addition  of  pure  iron  ore,  the  oxygen  of 
which  burns  the  excess  of  carbon,  whereas,  at  the  same 
time,  the  iron  of  the  ore  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state. 
This  process,  proposed  by  Captain  Uchatius,  of  Austria, 
has  been  considerably  experimented  upon,  and  has  often 
given  good  products.  The  great  drawback  is  the  rapid 
destruction  of  the  pots  by  a  portion  of  the  iron  oj-e, 
which  combines  and  forms  a  cinder  with  the  silicate  of 
alumina  (clay)  of  the  crucible,  before  the  cast-iron  is 
melted  and  can  be  acted  upon.  There  is  in  the  employ- 
ment of  iron  ore,  the  advantage,  that  a  certain  fining  takes 
place  from  the  energetic  stirring  given  to  the  molten  mass 
by  the  carbonic  oxide  gas,  resulting  from  the  reaction  of 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.  231 

the  oxygen  of  the  ore  upon  the  carbon  of  the  pig-iron. 
The  combination  is  more  thorough,  and  many  impurities 
are  oxidized  and  separated  in  the  resulting  cinders. 

Another  method  of  reducing  the  per  centage  of  carbon 
in  pig-iron  consists  in  diluting  it  in  a  greater  proportion 
of  wrought-iron.  A  great  deal  of  cast-steel  has  been, 
and  is  still,  made  in  pots  by  this  process.  The  pots  are 
charged  with  a  mixture  of  fragments  of  cast  and  of 
wrought-iron,  the  latter  consisting  of  muck  bars  made 
and  cut  for  the  purpose.  It  is  a  simple  fusion,  no  fining 
takes  place,  except  that  due  to  a  small  proportion  of 
peroxide  of  manganese  often  added  to  the  mixture.  The 
quality  of  the  steel  depends  entirely  upon  that  of  the 
materials  employed. 

Parry's  process  is  similar  to  the  preceding  method,  but 
he  uses  larger  apparatuses.  An  ordinary,  not  a  superior, 
quality  of  steel  is  made ;  but  the  great  advantage  is,  that 
inferior  qualities  of  pig-iron  may  be  used,  because  the 
metal  is  refined  before  it  is  transformed  into  steel.  The 
inferior,  and  consequently  cheap,  pig-iron  is  puddled  in 
the  ordinary  manner,  and  purified  of  the  greater  part 
of  its  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  It  is  well  known  that 
by  a  well-conducted  puddling  operation,  a  great  portion 
of  these  impurities  is  removed  by  volatilization,  and 
especially  by  the  cinders,  which  act  as  a  cleaning  bath. 
The  blooms  are  rolled  into  muck  bars,  which  are  then 


232  IMPROVEMENTS     IN    STEEL. 

cut  and  melted  in  a  high  cupola  furnace  with  a  certain 
proportion  of  pure  cast-iron.  The  fuel  must  be  of  good 
quality.  The  resulting  highly  carburized  steel,  or  rather 
white  metal,  is  then  further  purified  in  a  Bessemer 
converter.  This  last  operation  is  somewhat  difficult,  on 
account  of  the  small  proportion  of  carbon  and  silicon 
in  the  material  used ;  nevertheless  the  material  has  been 
fined  twice,  and  the  process  is  a  step  in  the  right  direc- 
tion for  using  inferior  materials,  the  low  cost  of  which 
allows  of  more  extended  manipulations. 

"We  now  pass  to  the  methods  by  which  carbon  is  added 
to  wrought-iron.  First  in  importance  is  that  by  cemen- 
tation and  fusion,  already  described  in  this  work.  We 
shall  simply  remark  that  it  presents  all  the  features 
necessary  for  the  production  of  a  perfect  steel,  provided, 
however,  that  the  wrought-iron  used  is  of  good  quality, 
and  the  operation  is  well  performed.  In  this  case,  the 
metal  has  been  fined  until  it  cannot  be  fined  any  more, 
that  is,  until  it  has  become  wrought-iron.  A  good 
cementation  imparts  to  it  the  proper  proportion  of  car- 
bon, and  the  fusion  in  pots  renders  it  thoroughly  homo- 
geneous, and  separates  the  small  proportion  of  cinders 
and  other  impurities  that  had  not  been  removed  by  the 
hammer  or  rolls. 

Lastly,  wrought-iron,  cut  into  fragments,  is  melted  in 
pots  with  a  certain  proportion  of  charcoal,  part  of  which 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.          233 

combines  with  the  metal,  while  the  remainder  is  burned 
by  the  gases  which  penetrate  the  pot  from  the  fire-place. 
Peroxide  of  manganese  is  generally  added  to  the  mixture, 
and,  as  its  action  is  complex,  we  shall  devote,  further  on, 
a  special  paragraph  to  this  substance.  This  method  is 
extensively  followed,  and  requires  a  good  wrought-iron, 
since  there  is  very  little  fining.  It  is  open  to  the  objec- 
tion that  the  percentage  of  carbon  in  the  steel,  and  there- 
fore its  hardness,  is  variable,  since  the  crucible  covers  only 
fit  more  or  less  closely,  and  allow  of  the  burning  of  a 
greater  or  less  proportion  of  the  carbonaceous  material. 
This  inconvenience  is  not  so  great  with  cemented  steel, 
because  the  carbon  is  already  combined  with  the  metal, 
and  is  not  so  easily  burned  off  as  wood  charcoal. 

Cast  steel  has  also  been  made  from  puddled  steel,  by 
simple  fusion  in  pots.  The  metal  becomes  more  homo- 
geneous, but  there  is  little  further  fining,  and  if  the  raw 
material  is  impure,  the  product  is  also  impure. 

We  see,  from  what  precedes,  that  under  the  name  of 
cast  steel,  many  qualities  of  metal  may  be  found,  differ- 
ing in  purity,  hardness,  and  tenacity. 

Homogeneous  metal,  a  newly  coined  name,  is  a  low  kind 
of  steel,  with  a  very  small  percentage  of  carbon.  It  is  often 
quite  impure ;  but,  as  it  has  been  obtained  by  fusion,  its 
quality  is  the  same  throughout.  It  is  homogeneously  good, 
bad.  or  indifferent,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  raw 


234          IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

material  used.  Many  kinds  of  so-called  "  Bessemer  steel 
rails  "  are  nothing  more  than  homogeneous  metal.  In 
fact,  when  impure  pig  is  employed,  it  is  preferable  to  make 
this  article  rather  than  a  more  highly  carburized  one. 

The  manufacture  of  steel,  direct  from  the  ore,  has  often 
been  attempted,  with  more  or  less  satisfactory  results. 
The  apparatus  is  generally  a  fire  similar  to  that  of  the 
Catalan  forge,  bloomery,  or  run  out  fire.  The  ores  must, 
of  course,  be  rich  and  perfectly  pure,  since  the  fining  is 
but  partial.  We  have  examined  several  samples  of  steel 
made  of  pure  titaniferous  ores,  which  were  remarkable, 
for  their  hardness  and  tenacity.  As  in  similar  operations, 
it  will  be  difficult  to  stop  the  carburization  or  decarburiza- 
tion  just  at  the  desired  time,  for  a  given  quality  of  steel. 

We  now^  come  to  the  Bessemer  and  Martin  processes, 
in  which  the  pig-iron  is  decarburized  partly,  or  entirely, 
and  afterwards  recarburized  to  a  given  point.  Or,  the 
pig-iron  is  melted  with  wrought  iron,  or  with  oxide  of 
iron,  then  recarburized,  etc.  The  chemical  reactions  are 
the  same  as  those  we  have  already  examined ;  but  the 
apparatuses  and  modes  of  operation  are  different,  and  re- 
markable for  the  quantity  of  the  materials  which  can  be 
worked  in  a  very  short  time. 

For  persons  interested  in  patent  office  matters,  the 
history  of  these  processes  cannot  fail  to  be  found  very 
interesting.  Let  it  be  sufficient  in  this  place  to  state  that 


IMPROVEMENTS      IN     STEEL.  235 

many  have  been  the  co-workers,  and  that  in  many  in- 
stances, their  failures  were  due  to  the  employment  of 
impure  raw  materials.  Indeed,  the  success  of  Mr.  Besse- 
mer dates  from  the  time  he  began  to  employ  pure  Swedish 
pig-metal. 

BESSEMER   PROCESS. 

When  a  blast  of  air  is  passed  through  molten  cast-iron, 
the  chemical  action  of  the  oxygen  upon  the  silicon,  car- 
bon, and  even  the  iron  itself,  is  sufficient  to  raise  the 
temperature  to  such  a  point  that,  after  complete  decar- 
burization,  the  metal  is  liquid  enough  to  be  cast  into 
ingots.  The  Bessemer  process  is  based  essentially  upon 
the  entire  or  partial  decarburization  of  molten  pig-iron 
by  a  blast  of  air  passing  through  it. 

Two  kinds  of  converting  vessels  are  used,  one  which  is 
stationary,  and  the  other  movable.  The  former  is  still 
retained  in  Sweden,  and  consists  of  a  kind  of  cupola, 
which  receives  the  molten  metal  from  another  cupola,  or 
direct  from  the  blast  furnace.  The  air  is  injected  near 
the  bottom  through  several  fire-clay  tuyeres,  which 
are  inclined  at  a  certain  angle,  so  as  to  impart  to 
the  fused  mass  a  rotary  motion.  In  order  to  prevent  the 
obstruction  of  the  tuyeres  by  the  metal,  the  blast  is  given 
before  the  metal  is  poured  in,  and  until  it  is  run  out. 
The  method  by  partial  decarburization  is  followed  out, 
and  notwithstanding  the  difficulty  of  stopping  the  opera- 


236          IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

tion  at  the  proper  time,  and  the  incomplete  fining,  the 
products  are  a  superior  Bessemer  steel,  which  is  used  for 
fine  wires,  tools,  razors,  etc.  Such  superiority  is  evi- 
dently due  to  the  remarkable  purity  of  the  Swedish 
raw  metal,  and  to  its  percentage  of  manganese,  which 
allows  of  the  non-employment  of  Spiegeleiseu. 

The  movable  apparatus  is,  in  every  respect,  superior 
to  the  preceding  one,  even  with  equally  pure  materials, 
as  it  has  been  proven  in  comparative  trials  made  in  Styria. 


Kg.  29. 

For  impure  materials,  which  require  a  complete  decarburi- 
zation  or  fining,  followed  by  a  partial  rorarburi/atioii,  it  is 
necessary  to  be  able  to  stop  and  restore  the  blast  when 
desired,  and  this  cannot  be  done  with  the  stationary 
apparatus. 

The  movable  converting  vessel,  or  Converter,  revolves 
on  two  trunnions  (Fig.  29)  ;  one  of  them  is  hollow  and 
connected  by  a  coupling  box  with  the  blowing  machine, 


IMPROVEMENTS      IN     STEEL.          237 

the  blast  passing  through  a  curved  pipe  along  the  lower 
part  of  the  converter,  and  terminating  in  a  metallic  box 
beneath  the  apparatus.  The  other  bears  a  strong  pinion, 
to  which  a  revolving  motion  is  given  by  a  rack  at  the  end 
of  the  piston-rod  of  a  double-acting  water-pressure  engine. 


The  converter  itself  (Fig.  30)  is  an  ellipsoidal  vessel 
made  of  strong  wrought-iron  plate.  The  upper  and  lower 
parts  are  bolted  together.  On  the  top  is  an  oblique  mouth 
for  receiving  the  charge  of  metal,  for  the  escape  of  gases 


238          IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

and  the  running  out  of  the  steel.  At  the  bottom  a  me- 
tallic box  receives  the  blast  and  divides  it  through  the 
tuyeres,  five,  six,  or  seven  in  number,  with  five  holes  in 
sach.  The  trunnions  are  fixed  upon  a  large  wrought-iron 
belt,  about  midway  of  the  apparatus.  The  inside  lining 
must  be  very  carefully  made ;  the  refractory  clay,  strongly 
beaten  into  it,  is  mixed  with  a  certain  quantity  of  quart- 
zoee  material  called  ganister,  or  ground  firebrick,  free 
from  scoriae. 

The  tuyeres  are  also  made  of  fire-bricks,  with  all  of 
the  joints  carefully  luted.  When  the  lining  is  dry,  a 
charcoal  or  coke  fire  in  built  in  it,  and  all  cracks  are 
closed.  Afterwards  a  stronger  fire  is  built,  a  certain  blast 
is  given,  and  the  interior  receives  a  glazing  of  common 
Bait 

The  ashes  being  removed,  the  converter  is  placed  in  a 
horizontal  position,  and  the  charge  of  pig-iron,  pr<:vi'»u.-ly 
smelted  in  a  cupola  or  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  is  run 
into  it  by  means  of  a  trough  lino!  with  -:in«l.  The  charge 
is  then  level  with  the  tuyeres,  and  the  blast  is  turned  on 
before  the  converter  is  made  to  revolve  to  its  vertical  po- 
sition, which  is  slowly  done.  After  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes  of  blast,  and  when  the  long  and  blue  flame  of 
oxide  of  carbon  has  disappeared,  the  converter  is  swung 
again  into  a  horizontal  position  in  order  to  receive  the 
additional  charge  of  five  to  ten  per  cent,  of  spiegeleisen. 
Having  again  been  made  to  assume  the  vertical 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.  239 

after  a  few  minutes  more  of  blast,  the  steel  is  completed 
and  run  into  a  large  ladle  supported  by  a  crane.  From 
this  ladle  the  ingot  moulds  are  filled. 

The  blast,  after  the  introduction  of  the  spiegeleisen,  is 
intended  to  stir  the  mixture ;  but,  as  at  the  same  time 
part  of  the  carbon  is  burned  off,  it  is  necessary  to  add 
more  spiegeleisen  than  is  needed  for  the  desired  per  cent, 
of  carbon  in  the  steel.  In  several  works,  for  instance  in 
those  of  Seraing,  Belgium,  no  blast  is  let  on  after  the 
introduction  of  the  spiegeleisen,  and  the  mixture  is  con- 
sidered sufficiently  intimate  after  the  several  pourings 
into  the  converter,  then  into  the  casting  ladle,  and  lastly 
into  ingots. 

Spiegeleisen  (mirror  iron)  is  a  white  pig-metal  present- 
ing large  and  bright  facets  in  its  fracture,  and  holding  a 
variable  proportion  of  manganese  (from  6  to  25  per  cent.) 
and  carbon,  the  latter  in  the  combined  state.  This  metal, 
which  seems  absolutely  necessary  in  the  manufacture  of 
steel  even  from  pure  pig,  which  does  not  hold  manganese, 
imparts  to  the  decarburized  iron  of  the  converter  the 
necessary  proportion  of  carbon.  The  action  of  the  manga- 
nese is  complex,  and  we  shall  examine  it  further  on. 

Several  pig-irons  from  Sweden  and  Styria,  which  natu- 
rally contain  from  2  to  4  per  cent,  of  manganese,  do  not 
need  the  employment  of  a  special  spiegeleisen.  The  final 
carburization  is  effected  with  the  same  quality  of  pig 

which  has  been  decarburized  in  the  converter. 
21 


240  IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

Whatever  be  the  purity  of  the  crude  metal  employed, 
experience  seems  to  have  established  the  principle  that  it 
is  preferable  to  decarburize  the  metal  entirely,  and  then 
to  recarburize  it  to  the  proper  point.  The  fining  by  the 
blast  is  more  complete,  and  it  is  easier  to  obtain  a  product 
of  a  given  degree  of  carburization,  than  by  arresting  the 
decarburization  at  a  given  time,  which  can  be  ascertained 
only  by  the  fugitive  change  in  the  color  of  the  flame 
escaping  from  the  converter. 

The  molten  metal  charged  into  the  converter  is  gene- 
rally melted  in  a  cupola  or  in  a  reverberatory  furnace. 
The  cupola  presents  the  advantage  of  working  more 
rapidly  and  cheaply,  and  of  not  changing  so  much  the 
nature  of  the  pig-metal,  which  retains  its  carbon  and 
silicon  better  than  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  fuel  must  be  pure,  and  the  charge  cannot 
be  retained  molten  a  long  time  in  the  cupola,  without  the 
danger  of  chilling.  The  reverberatory  furnace  is  still 
retained  for  the  fusion  of  the  spiegeleisen,  and  an  oxidiz- 
ing flame  or  cinder  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

At  several  works  in  Sweden  and  Styria,  and  at  those 
of  Terre-noire  and  Creusot,  France,  where  the  converters 
are  in  close  proximity  to  blast  furnaces  producing  a  suita- 
ble quality  of  pig-iron,  the  tapped  metal  is  run  directly 
into  the  converters.  There  is  a  saving  in  expense,  and 
the  nature  of  the  metal  is  not  modified  as  by  a  second 
fusion. 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.  241 

The  requisites  of  a  Bessemer  pig-iron  are  freedom  from 
Buch  injurious  substances  as  sulphur,  phosphorus,  copper, 
arsenic,  etc.,  and  the  presence  of  a  certain  amount  of 
silicon,  carbon,  and  sometimes  of  manganese.  In  appear- 
ance, it  is  gray  pig.  Part  of  the  volatile  and  easily 
oxidized  substances,  such  as  sulphur  and  arsenic,  may  be 
gotten  rid  of  during  the  operation..  On  the  other  hand, 
phosphorus,  under  the  oxidizing  action  of  the  blast  and 
the  acidity  of  the  cinders  produced,  has  no  chance  to 
escape,  but  remains  with  the  iron.  This  fact  has  been 
abundantly  proven  by  analyses  of  samples  of  metal  taken 
before,  during,  and  after  the  operation.  Over  0.05 
per  cent,  of  phosphorus  in  pig-iron  is  decidedly  injurious 
to  the  quality  of  steel,  although  certain  kinds  of  Bessemer 
metal,  of  a  low  degree  of  carburization,  have  been  found 
to  contain  0.1  per  cent,  (one  thousandth)  of  phosphorus. 

Silicon,  which  is  not  a  desideratum  in  the  finished  pro- 
duct, is  useful  in  the  pig-metal  because,  by  its  combustion 
by  the  oxygen  of  the  blast,  it  raises  the  temperature  of 
the  molten  mass.  The  carbon  has  a  similar  effect.  Manga- 
nese, in  Bessemer  pig-metal,  is  sometimes  detrimental,  un- 
less it  be  associated  with  rather  a  large  proportion  of  silicon 
and  carbon.  In  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  proportion  of 
these  two  heat-giving  substances,  the  molten  metal  has  a 
tendency  to  remain  pasty,  and  to  work  cold,  as  it  is  said. 
The  only  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  we  can  offer  is, 


242  IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

that  manganese,  being  more  easily  oxidized  and  its  oxide 
reduced  with  more  difficulty  than  that  of  iron,  it  follows 
that  when  the  heat  of  the  molten  mass  has  not  been  raised 
at  the  start  by  the  oxidization  of  a  sufficient  proportion 
of  silicon,  the  manganese  retains  the  oxygen  of  the  blast 
and  does  not  give  it  up  rapidly  enough  to  burn  the  carbon, 
and  the  metallic  mass  becomes  and  remains  cold. 

The  first  period  of  the  operation  is  one  of  scorification, 
during  which  the  silicon  is  transformed  into  silica,  and 
but  little  flame  appears  at  the  mouth  of  the  converter. 
Afterwards,  the  metal  and  the  carbon  are  oxidized.  The 
oxide  of  iron  delivers  up  its  oxygen  to  the  carbon,  and  a 
portion  of  it  forms  a  cinder  with  the  silica.  When  the 
decarburization  is  practically  complete,  the  remaining 
metal  is  wrought  iron  holding  a  very  slight  proportion 
of  carbon,  and  contaminated  with  oxide.  The  subsequent 
recarburization  by  spiegeleisen  or  other  suitable  pig-metal, 
not  only  gives  the  desired  percentage  of  carbon,  but  also 
reduces  to  the  metallic  state  the  oxide  of  iron,  and  restores 
the  malleability  of  the  metallic  mass. 

We  believe  that  the  failure  to  produce  a  steel  of  a 
desired  degree  of  hardness,  by  the  addition  of  a  calculated 
proportion  of  recarburizing  material,  spiegeleisen  for  in- 
stance, is  often  due  to  the  fact  that  the  decarburized  metal 
is  more  oxidized  than  it  is  thought  to  be.  A  portion  of  the 
carbon  of  the  spiegeleisen  is  employed  to  reduce  that  oxide. 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN    STEEL.  243 

and  the  proportion  of  carbon  expected  to  remain  in  the 
steel  is  thus  diminished. 

When  the  pig-metal  employed  is  of  the  proper  kind, 
and  is  poured  hot  into  the  hot  converter,  the  charge  is 
said  to  work  hot,  that  is,  the  mass  remains  perfectly  fluid, 
and  the  gases  have  no  difficulty  in  escaping.  On  the  other 
hand,  white  metals  poor  in  carbon  and  silicon,  work  cold, 
that  is  to  say,  the  metal  remains  thick,  and  the  gases  not 
finding  easy  means  of  exit,  cause  explosions  to  take  place. 
As  a  rule,  the  more  silicon  and  carbon  in  the  pig-metal, 
the  longer  and  the  better  is  the  fining. 

The  end  of  the  decarburization  is  ascertained  in  various 
ways :  by  stopping  the  blast  after  a  certain  length  of  time, 
practically  ascertained  after  several  operations  upon  the 
same  pig-iron — by  viewing  the  flame  through  an  optical 
instrument  known  as  the  spectroscope,  which  enables  the 
observer  to  detect  a  certain  line  in  the  spectrum  or  image 
of  the  flame,  the  disappearance  of  which  line  marks,  to 
within  a  few  seconds,  the  conclusion  of  the  process — by 
the  sudden  decrease  of  the  long  blue  flame,  and  its  ap- 
pearance wnen  viewed  with  the  naked  eye,  or  through 
different  colored  glasses  (blue  and  yellow)  superposed, 
giving  a  dark  neutral  tint.  Through  these  glasses  the 
flame  appears  white  as  long  as  the  decarburization  is 
going  on,  and  turns  red  when  all  the  carbon  has  been 
burned  off. 


244  IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 

Converters  of  various  sizes  have  been  made,  and  those 
holding  six  tons  of  molten  pig-iron  seem  to  be  those  most 
in  use  at  the  present  time.  The  charge  should,  however, 
occupy  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  space  in  them ;  the 
reaction  and  the  boiling  are  so  violent  that  part  of  the 
metal  would  be  thrown  out  if  there  were  not  plenty 
of  room.  A  six-ton  converter  is  about  eleven  feet  high, 
and  five  and  a  half  feet  in  its  widest  diameter.  The  blow- 
ing machinery,  for  medium  sized  converters,  should  be 
able  to  produce  a  pressure  of  at  least  fifteen  pounds  to  the 
square  inch. 

When  the  finished  product  is  poured  from  the  conver- 
ter into  the  casting  ladle,  it  is  well  to  let  the  ebullition 
subside  for  a  short  time  before  running  the  metal  into  the 
moulds.  This  ebullition  is  due  to  the  escape  of  carbonic 
oxide,  resulting  from  the  action  of  the  oxide  of  iron  or  ab- 
sorbed oxygen  upon  the  carbon.  The  ingots  are  better 
when  the  moirlds  are  in  the  form  of  syphons ;  the  metal  is 
more  condensed  and  without  admixture  of  cinders,  since 
the  latter  remain  in  the  branch  which  receives  the  molten 
steel.  These  moulds  are  generally  disposed  as  follows  :  a 
metallic  platform  is  cast  with  deep  grooves  radiating  from 
a  centre,  and  the  grooves  and  the  bottom  of  the  central 
.part  are  lined  with  small  bricks  made  of  fire  clay.  The 
moulds  are  of  heavy  cast-iron,  and  present  the  shape  of 
^truncated,  quadrangular  pyramids,  the  larger  sections  of 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN    STEEL.  245 

which  rest  upon  the  metallic  platform.  Now,  if  we  put 
one  such  mould  over  the  central  opening,  and  upon  each 
outlet  of  the  radiating  grooves,  the  metal  poured  into  the 
central  mould  will  run  into  and  fill  the  other  moulds. 
All  the  cinder  remains  in  the  central  mould,  which,  on 
this  account,  is  a  little  higher  than  the  others.  When 
the  steel  has  been  sufficiently  cooled  off,  the  moulds  are 
lifted  by  a  crane. 

The  metal  generally  remains  porous,  that  is,  filled  with 
blown  holes.  Before  rolling  it  into  rails,  bars,  or  plates, 
the  ingots  are  reheated  and  their  cavities  closed  by  conden- 
sing the  metal  under  a  steam  hammer  or  between  rollers. 

The  difficulty  of  making  sound  steel  castings  has  always 
been  very  great,  and  many  appliances  have  been  devised 
for  compressing  the  still  fluid  metal  in  its  mould,  either 
by  weights  or  hydrostatic  pressure,  and  even  by  burning 
gunpowder  in  closed  vessels  holding  the  moulds. 

We  have  seen  a  perfectly  compact  steel  ingot  said  to 
have  been  fused  and  cast  in  the  same  vessel.  We  under- 
stand that  the  patented  process  consists  in  melting  steel 
in  mould-shaped  crucibles  which  are  covered  air-tight, 
and,  when  the  fusion  is  complete,  allowing  the  metal  to 
cool  off  slowly  in  the  same  crucible,  which  is  removed 
from  the  fireplace  and  covered  either  with  ashes  or  with 
a  metallic  hood. 

The  greater  proportion  of  the  steel  made  by  the  Bessemer 
process  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  rails,  and  a 


246  IMPROVEMENTS     IN    S  T  E  E  T. . 

large  quantity  for  railroad  tires,  plates,  pieces  of  machin- 
ery, etc.  When  the  degree  of  carburizatiou  is  very  low, 
the  product  is  often  called  homogeneous  metal.  Very  little 
tool  steel  of  the  first  quality  is  made  from  Bessemer  steel, 
unless  from  the  best  materials  of  Sweden  and  Styria.  We 
understand,  however,  that  Bessemer  steel  scraps  are  some- 
times remelted  in  pots,  in  England ;  but  we  know  little 
about  the  quality  of  the  resulting  product. 

The  yield  of  merchantable  products  in  Bessemer  steel 
works  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  is  about  80  per  cent., 
and  sometimes  85  per  cent.,  of  the  raw  materials  used. 
The  loss  by  volatilization,  scorification,  and  bad  scraps, 
amounts  to  about  20  per  cent.  We  do  not  know  how  the 
yields  of  American  manufacture  compare  with  these, 
after  deduction  of  the  scraps. 

Notwithstanding  the  care  taken  to  stop  the  blast  at  the 
j.roper  time,  and  to  calculate  the  proportion  of  ppicp  1<  i- 
sen  to  be  added,  the  steel  produced  requires  to  be  afterwards 
classified  according  to  its  chemical  composition  and  physi- 
cal properties.  Asmall  test  ingot  is  cast  atabout  the  middle 
of  the  pouring,  and  its  fracture  examined.  After  having 
taken  from  it  the  necessary  quantity  of  metal  for  the 
chemical  determination  of  the  carbon,  it  is  hamim-ml, 
bent,  hardened,  and  tempered,  and  its  tensile  strength  is 
now  and  then  ascertained.  All  of  these  tests  give  valu- 
able information,  and  permit  of  the  classification  of  the 
various  grades  of  steel. 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 


247 


Nearly  every  steel  works  possesses  its  own  mode  of 
classification,  and  we  give  below, 'as  examples,  the  scales 
used  in  Sweden,  in  Austria  (Tunner's  scale),  and  at  the 
Belgian  works  of  Seraing,  near  Liege. 


SWEDISH 

HUMMERS. 

AUSTRIAN 
NUMBERS. 

PERCENTAGE 
OP  CARBON. 

PROPERTIES. 

1 

2.00 

The  hardest  steel,  forms  the  limit  between 

white  pig  metal  and  steel,  difficult  to 

forge,  and  does  not  weld. 

\\& 

1.75 

More  malleable,  but  does  not  weld. 

2 

1 

1.50 

Malleable,  but  does  not  weld. 

VA 

2 

1.25 

Forges  well,  and  is  quite  difficult  to  weld. 

3 

3 

1.00 

Hard  tool  steel,  easily  forged,  and  may  bo 
welded  by  a  skilful  workman. 

3% 

4 

0.75 

Easily  forged  and  welded.  Ordinary  steel. 

5 

0.50 

Mild  or  soft  steel,  easily  forged  and  welded. 

4V 

6 

0.26 

Hard  granular  iron   or  very  low  steel, 

with  a  slight  hardening  power.     Rea- 

dily forged  and  welded. 

6 

7 

0.05 

Homogeneous   metal,    which  forges  and 

welds  perfectly,  but  does  not  harden. 

SERAING'S  SCALE. 


f£ 

|| 

n 

! 

1 

ill 

h 

1 

V 

Ii 

11 

Is 

j 

I 

I 

I.      a 

Does   not  har- 

30^-35^ 

20—25 

Up  to  0.35 

Ex.  son. 

Guns,  cannons, 

den  ;  may  be 

sheets,  boiler 

welded. 

plates,  rivets, 

ropes. 

0.35—0.45 

Soft. 

Machinery, 

"1. 

Hardens,    and 
welds  with 
more  or  less 
difficulty. 

35^-44 

10—20 

0.45—0.55 

Medium 
soft  or 
medium 
hard. 

axles,  tires, 

Tires,'rails,pi8- 
ton  rods,  sur- 
faces subject- 

ed to  friction. 

a 

Hardens   well, 

f 

0.55—0.65 

Hard. 

Large  and  me- 
dium springs, 

in. 

and  some- 
times does 

«-* 

6—10 

cutting  tools, 
fi  1  e  s,     saws, 
bits,    mining 
tools. 

not  weld. 

0.65  &  over 

ban? 

Fine    springs 
and     tools, 

spindles,  etc. 

248  IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

MARTIN   PROCESS. 

The  Martin  process  employs  essentially  a  mixture  of 
wrought-  and  cast-iron  for  the  preparation  of  steel,  and 
the  operation  is  performed  in  a  Siemen's  gas  regenerative 
furnace,  which  allows  of  a  temperature  sufficiently  great 
to  melt  wrought-iron. 

The  apparatus  is  a  reverberatory  furnace,  which,  on 
account  of  the  great  heat  required,  is  built  of  the  most 
refractory  materials.  In  England  they  use  the  Dina's 
bricks,  which  contain  about  98  per  cent,  of  silica  (the 
remainder  being  lime  and  other  impurities,  in  order  to 
give  a  certain  consistency  to  the  material).  In  America, 
the  Mount  Savage  bricks,  of  Maryland,  have  been  found 
to  answer  well,  although  the  repairs  are  frequent.  A 
charging  and  working  door  is  in  the  middle  of  one  of  the 
long  sides,  and  the  tap  hole  is  opposite  to  it,  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  hearth.  Each  end  of  the  furnace  is  provided 
with  fire-clay  flues,  which  serve  alternately  for  the  intro- 
duction and  the  escape  of  the  gases.  The  furnace  itself 
is  built  upon  a  double  system  of  chambers,  filled  with  a 
quantity  of  fire-bricks  set  up  so  as  to  leave  open  spaces 
for  the  circulation  of  the  gases.  These  chambers  form 
the  regenerative  part  of  the  system,  that  is  to  say,  the 
very  hot  gases  escaping  from  the  working  part  of  the 
furnace  circulate  in  one  of  the  chambers  below,  and  leave 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.  249 

part  of  their  heat  to  the  bricks  contained  therein.  When, 
after  a  certain  length  of  time,  every  half-hour,  for  in- 
stance, the  direction  of  the  gases  is  inverted,  they,  be- 
fore being  admitted  over  the  hearth,  are  made  to  circu- 
late through  the  heated  room  below,  where  they  acquire 
a  high  temperature.  The  other  regenerating  chamber  is 
then,  in  its  turn,  heated  with  the  hot  escaping  gases. 
Properly  speaking,  there  is  no  heat  regenerated,  but  part 
of  the  escaping  heat  is  saved. 

The  gases  are  generated  in  special  kilns  placed  at  a 
certain  distance  from  the  reverberatory  furnace.  These 
kilns  are  generally  built  of  bricks,  receive  the  charge  of 
fuel  on  top,  and  the  air  is  admitted  through  grate  bars  at 
the  bottom.  The  combustion  is  directed  so  as  to  produce 
only  carbonic  oxide,  which  being  conveyed  through  pipes 
to  the  reverberatory  furnace,  is  there  combined  with  more 
air,  and  burns  in  the  state  of  carbonic  acid,  thus  produ- 
cing the  highest  temperature  possible  by  the  combustion 
of  carbon  with  oxygen  (diluted  by  the  nitrogen  of 
the  air). 

The  heating  by  gases  presents  several  advantages :  the 
saving  of  fuel  is  said  to  be  about  one-third ;  the  metal  is 
protected  from  the  contact  of  the  impurities  of  the  fuel ; 
the  temperature  may  be  rapidly  and  easily  regulated  by 
means  of  valves  or  dampers ;  and  the  chemical  action  of 
the  gases  may  be  made  oxidizing  or  reducing  as  desired, 


250  IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  admixture  of  air.  How- 
ever, when  wrought-iron  is  to  be  melted,  the  whole  heat- 
ing power  of  carbonic  oxide  is  required  by  transforming  it 
entirely  into  carbonic  acid,  and  then  the  action  of  the 
gases  is  slightly  oxidizing. 

Quite  inferior  fuels  may  be  employed  by  this  system, 
sawdust,  charcoal  dust,  anthracite,  etc.,  but  a  semi-bitu- 
minous coal  seems  to  give  the  best  results,  in  regard  to 
the  amount  of  gases  and  the  facility  of  conducting  the 
operation.  In  this  latter  case,  a  certain  proportion  of 
hydro-carbon  gases  are  mixed  with  the  carbonic  oxide. 

The  bed  of  the  reverberatory  furnace  is  covered  with  a 
compact  layer  of  siliceous  material,  which  acquires  a 
certain  consistency  from  the  great  heat  produced.  A  charge 
consists  of  about  equal  parts  of  cast-  and  wrought-iron, 
added  in  successive  proportions.  The  greater  part  of  the 
more  fusible  material,  cast-iron,  is  charged  first,  and, 
when  melted,  the  wrought-iron  is  gradually  added.  In 
this  manner,  the  fusion  of  the  wrought-iron  is  more  rapid. 
When  the  added  material  has  fused,  the  molten  mass  is 
stirred  with  an  iron  rable,  so  as  to  insure  a  thorough 
mixture.  We  have  forgotten  to  state  that,  in  order  not 
to  chill  the  metallic  bath,  the  pieces  of  cast-iron,  wrought- 
iron,  and  spiegeleisen,  are  previously  brought  up  to  a 
red  heat  in  a  small  adjoining  reverberatory  furnace,  con- 
structed on  the  Siemeu's  plan,  and  working  with  gas. 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.          251 

Various  phenomena  take  place :  the  cast-iron  divides 
its  carbon  with  the  wrought-iron,  part  of  it  is  also 
burned  off  by  the  slightly  oxidizing  action  of  the 
flame,  and  by  a  certain  proportion  of  oxide  of  iron,  which 
always  accompanies  the  scraps  or  the  pig-metal,  or  which 
has  been  produced  during  the  fusion  of  the  metals.  A 
certain  proportion  of  cinder  is  also  formed,  which  may 
have  a  similar  decarburizing  action  like  that  in  the 
puddling  furnace.  A  boil,  or  disengagement  of  carbonic 
oxide  is  observed  in  the  mass. 

It  would  be  quite  as  difficult  to  stop  the  operation  at  a 
desired  time,  as  it  is  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  by  the 
German  process,  by  puddling,  or  in  the  Bessemer  process 
by  incomplete  decarburization,  although  the  Martin  pro- 
cess is  more  gentle,  and  allows  of  taking  samples  from  the 
metallic  bath,  and  trying  them  on  the  anvil.  Therefore, 
the  decarburization  is  continued  until  it  is  practically 
complete,  that  is,  until  a  sample  taken  shows  itself  red 
short.  The  previous  samples  were  perfectly  malleable, 
although  more  or  less  hard,  according  to  the  proportion 
of  carbon,  and  this  red  shortness  is  due  to  a  certain 
amount  of  oxidization  of  the  molten  metal,  after  nearly  all 
the  carbon  has  been  eliminated.  It  now  becomes  necessary 
to  remove  this  oxygen  and  to  impart  the  proportion  of 
carbon  desired,  and  this  is  done  by  an  addition  of  spiegel- 
eisen,  or,  in  some  cases,  of  some  other  kind  of  pure  pig- 
22 


252          IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

iron.  Fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  after  the  spiegeleisen 
is  put  in,  the  mass  is  stirred,  and  the  steel  run  into  the 
moulds  placed  on  a  railway  below  the  tap  hole. 

The  operation  proper,  for  a  charge  of  about  three  tons, 
lasts,  on  an  average,  eight  hours.  With  the  time  neces- 
sary for  repairing  the  siliceous  bed  of  the  furnace,  we 
may  say  that  the  whole  operation  requires  twelve  hours, 
or  two  operations  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  patent  covers  also  the  decarburization  of  pig-irou 
by  iron  ores,  and  steel  has  been  made  in  this  manner 
under  difficulties  which  are  hard  to  overcome.  Fine 
particles  of  ore  do  not  sink  readily  to  the  molten  metal, 
on  account  of  the  great  difference  in  the  specific  gravities 
of  the  substances,  and  they  remain  mixed  with  the  cinder 
above.  Their  action  is  thus  slow,  and  resembles  that  of 
the  fettling  of  the  puddling  furnace.  Large  blocks  of 
sufficiently  pure  ore  are  difficult  to  get,  but  when  used, 
they  come  in  immediate  contact  with  the  molten  metal, 
and  their  action  is  very  energetic.  But  the  greatest 
drawback  is  that  the  walls  and  the  bed  of  the  furnace  are 
rapidly  corroded. 

Caron  has  proposed  the  employment  of  magnesia  cruci- 
bles to  obviate  the  cutting  action  of  oxides  and  of  the 
cinder  on  the  ordinary  smelting  pots.  If  the  results  were 
found  satisfactory,  the  same  substance  might  be  employed 
for  the  lining  of  the  earth  in  the  Martin  process.  On  the 


IMPROVEMENTS      IN     STEEL.          253 

other  hand,  the  inquiry  may  be  made,  whether,  in  the 
presence  of  the  great  excess  of  surrounding  magnesia,  the 
impurities  would  be  properly  fluxed  and  separated  from 
the  metal. 

We  recognize  in  the  Martin  process  all  the  requisites 
of  a  good  preparation  of  steel  from  a  good  raw  material. 
The  product  being  fused,  is  homogeneous,  the  decarburi- 
zation  or  fining  is  complete,  and  is  aided,  moreover,  by 
the  cinder  present,  as  in  the  puddling  furnace,  although 
to  a  smaller  degree.  The  operation  being  more  gentle 
than  in  the  Bessemer  process,  there  is  a  possibility  of 
maintaining  the  degree  of  carburization  of  the  finished 
product  up  to  the  desired  point.  Should  the  sample  be- 
fore casting,  show  itself  too  hard  and  too  rich  in  carbon, 
by  allowing  it  to  remain  for  a  few  minutes  more  in  the 
furnace  the  difficulty  will  be  remedied.  Should  the  sample 
prove  too  poor  in  carbon,  a  few  pounds  more  of  spiegelei- 
sen  may  be  added.  All  kinds  of  scraps  of  good  quality 
may  be  used,  whatever  be  their  percentage  of  carbon, 
which  is  not  the  case  with  the  Bessemer  process,  which 
will  work  anew  but  a  limited  portion  of  its  own  scraps. 
Good  puddle  balls  and  blooms  may  be  advantageously 
employed  in  the  Martin  process. 

To  sum  up,  we  regard  this  latter  process  as  complete 
in  itself,  and  it  would  even  be  found  a  useful  adjunct  to 
Bessemer  Works  for  utilizing  and  working  up  their 


254  IMPROVEMENTS     IN    STEEL. 

numerous  scraps,  such  as  bad  ingots,  rail  ends,  etc.  The 
Martin  method  of  making  steel,  like  all  others,  requires 
good  materials  for  the  production  of  a  good  steel. 

THE  ACTION   OF   PEROXIDE   OF   MANGANESE   AND   OF 
SPIEGELEI8EN. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cast-steel  in  pots,  there  is  nearly 
always  a  certain  proportion  of  peroxide  of  manganese 
added  to  the  mixture  of  cast-  and  wrought-iron,  or  of 
wrought-iron  and  charcoal,  or  to  the  cemented  steel  itself. 
In  the  Uchatius  process  of  cast-iron  and  iron  ore,  manga- 
nese oxide  is  also  added,  if  the  iron  ore  is  not  already 
manganesiferous.  Since  the  proportion  of  manganese  re- 
duced to  the  metallic  state  and  alloyed  with  the  steel  is 
much  smaller  (and  sometimes  so  small  as  to  be  a  mere 
trace)  than  that  contained  in  the  oxide  used,  it  follows 
that  the  greater  part  of  this  oxide  must  have  another 
effect  than  that  of  making  an  alloy.  If  it  has  not  such 
an  effect,  its  use  is  then  a  waste  of  material,  and  a  single 
pinch  of  the  substance  is  sufficient  in  each  pot.  But 
long  practice  everywhere  shows  that  the  peroxide  of  man- 
ganese is  beneficial,  and  it  is  said  to  act  as  a  regulator  of 
the  proportion  of  carbon  and  of  silicon  in  steel.  The 
action  of  this  substance  seems  to  us  complex,  and  the  ex- 
planation we  offer  is  put  forward  as  a  simple  hypothesis. 
At  the  temperature  at  which  peroxide  of  manganese  loses 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN    STEEL.  255 

part  of  its  oxygen,  the  metals  are  not  melted,  and  the 
oxygen  will  superficially  oxidize  them  and  burn  a  por- 
tion of  the  charcoal  of  the  mixture.  Later,  when  the 
metals  have  melted,  the  manganese  oxide  will  oxidize 
the  silicon,  part  of  the  carbon,  and  some  other  easily  oxi- 
dizable  impurities.  The  carbonic  oxide  produced  stirs 
and  renders  the  mixture  homogeneous.  The  metallic 
manganese  formed  will  in  its  turn  be  oxidized  by  the 
free  oxide  of  iron  which  may  be  present,  the  latter  being 
reduced  to  the  metallic  state.  Lastly,  the  greater  part 
of  the  manganese  oxide  will  combine  with  the  silica  and 
other  impurities  of  the  metal,  and  with  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  the  clay  of  the  crucible,  thus  forming  a  fluid  slag, 
which  will  cleanse  the  molten  steel,  and  will  separate 
easily  from  it. 

The  action  of  spiegeleisen  is  also  manifold.  We  must 
bear  in  mind  that  in  the  Bessemer  and  Martin  processes 
it  is  added  to  an  iron  which  is  not  only  decarburized,  blit 
also,  to  a  certain  extent,  oxidized.  The  carbon  of  the 
spiegeleisen  becomes  diffused  within  the  iron,  transform- 
ing it  into  steel,  and,  at  the  same  time,  reduces  to  the 
metallic  state  part  of  the  oxidized  iron,  as  is  readily  as- 
certained by  the  disengagement  of  carbonic  oxide.  The 
metallic  manganese,  if  all  the  iron  oxide  were  reduced  by 
the  carbon  alone,  and  in  the  absence  of  blast,  would  form 
an  alloy  with  the  steel,  whereas  it  is  nearly  all  found 


256  IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 

in  the  cinders.  We  are  therefore  obliged  to  conclude 
that  the  oxide  of  manganese  of  the  cinders  has  taken  its  oxy- 
gen mostly  from  the  oxide  of  iron,  and  that  the  metallic 
manganese  remaining  in  the  steel  and  forming  with  it  an 
alloy,  is  that  in  excess  of  the  proportion  necessary  to  re- 
duce the  iron  oxide.  Another  example  of  the  reduction 
of  a  metallic  oxide  to  the  metallic  state  by  another  metal 
having  a  superior  affinity  for  oxygen,  is  that  of  litharge 
(oxide  of  lead)  by  metallic  iron. 

The  manufacture  of  boiler  plates  from  Bessemer  metal 
is  difficult  when  ordinary  spiegeleisen,  relatively  poor  in 
manganese,  and  rich  in  carbon,  is  employed.  If  it  be 
added  to  the  oxidized  iron  in  sufficient  quantity  to  restore 
the  malleability,  the  proportion  of  carbon  remaining  in 
the  plate  is  too  great.  How  could  it  be  too  great,  if  the 
carbon  alone  had  been  the  reducing  agent  of  the  oxide  of 
iron?  Very  little  carbon  should  remain  in  the  metal,  which, 
on  the  other  hand,  would  be  rich  in  alloyed  manganese, 
two  conclusions  contrary  to  the  facts  of  the  manufacture. 
Here  again,  we  must  infer  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
deoxidization  of  the  iron  is  effected  by  the  metallic 
manganese. 

Boiler-plates,  made  at  Terre-noire  (France),  and  ex- 
perimented upon  in  England,  gave  unprecedented  results 
in  regard  to  strength  and  malleability.  They  were  made 
by  the  Bessemer  process,  and,  with  the  addition  of 


IMPROVEMENTS      IN     STEEL.  257 

spiegeleisen,  holding  as  much  as  25  per  cent,  of  man- 
ganese, a  ferro-manganese  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  Does 
it  not  seem  probable  that  the  deoxidization  of  the  iron 
was  produced  by  the  manganese,  which  was  in  such  great 
excess  over  the  proportion  of  carbon  in  the  spiegeleisen 
used  ? 

In  Sweden  and  Austria,  where  the  pig-metal  contains 
from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  manganese,  a  special  spiegeleisen 
is  not  needed  for  imparting  carbon  and  malleability  to 
the  decarburized  metal.  During  the  blast,  the  man- 
ganese present  protects  the  iron  from  too  great  an  oxidi- 
zation, and,  as  has  been  demonstrated  by  numerous 
analyses,  the  proportion  of  manganese  oxide  in  the  cin- 
ders in  all  the  periods  of  the  operation,  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  oxide  of  iron.  When  the  decarburization  is 
complete,  there  is  less  oxidized  iron,  and  therefore,  less 
need  of  a  spiegeleisen  with  a  large  proportion  of  man- 
ganese. The  same  pig-iron  as  that  which  was  decarbur- 
ized, is  sufficient, 

It  may  seem  strange  that  molten  iron  should  be  car- 
burized  and  oxidized  at  the  same  time.  A  sample  of  red 
short  iron  taken  at  the  end  of  the  decarburizing  period 
of  the  Martin  process,  was  analyzed  by  ourselves,  and 
was  found  to  contain  nearly  as  much  of  carbon  as  of  oxy- 
gen. The  red  shortness  was  not  due  to  sulphur,  as  no 
appreciable  quantity  of  that  substance  could  be  found, 


258          IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

and  as  all  shortness  disappeared  after  the  addition  of 
spiegeleisen.  The  analyzed  sample  was  also  carefully 
filed,  in  order  to  remove  the  crust  of  oxide  formed  during 
the  cooling  of  the  metal. 

ALLOYS    OF    STEEL. 

Steel  is  essentially  an  alloy  of  iron  and  carbon,  but  it 
is  nearly  always  accompanied  by  a  quantity  of  other 
substances,  the  number  and  the  variety  of  which  may 
astonish  many  persons.  These  substances  are  not  gener- 
ally determined,  for  the  reason  that  such  scientific  analy- 
ses are  very  expensive  and  cannot  be  executed  except  by 
experienced  chemists,  and  also  because  the  proportions  of 
the  foreign  matters  being  generally  very  small,  it  is  sup- 
posed that  they  are  without  material  influence  upon  the 
quality  of  the  metal.  It  is  not  so,  however,  and  we  see 
from  the  examples  of  Bessemer  steel  scales  used  in  Austria, 
Sweden  and  Belgium,  that  a  difference  of  0.25  per  cent, 
of  carbon  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  steel  to  pass  from  one 
class  into  another,  that  is,  to  change  the  nature  of  its 
applications  in  the  arts.  We  know  well  how  a  small 
amount  of  sulphur  or  phosphorus  is  sufficient  to  render 
the  metal  hot  or  cold  short,  and  that  a  small  proportion 
of  copper  prevents  the  weldability  of  steel  and  iron.  One 
part  of  bismuth  or  lead  in  ten  thousand  parts  of  gold, 
renders  the  latter  metal  as  brittle  as  antimony.  A  ira«  e 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.  259 

of  carbon,  sulphur,  or  oxygen  in  copper  changes  its  mal- 
leability considerably.  We  might  give  a  great  many 
more  similar  examples;  and  since  chemistry  and  the 
manufacture  of  alloys  give  so  many  proofs  of  changes  of 
properties  in  metals  by  the  addition  of  small  proportions 
of  other  substances,  we  see  no  reason  why  steel  should  not 
follow  the  same  rule. 

In  scientific  examinations  of  pig-irons,  the  following 
metals  have  been  found  alloyed  with  the  iron  and  carbon : 
Silicon,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  arsenic,  manganese,  alumi- 
nium, chromium,  copper,  antimony,  nickel,  cobalt,  tita- 
nium, molybdenum,  vanadium,  tungsten,  magnesium, 
calcium,  potassium,  sodium,  etc.  A  single  analysis  of 
pig-metal  demonstrates  the  presence  of  sixteen  of  the 
above-named  substances.  During  the  transformation  of 
the  metal  into  wrought-iron,  the  easily  oxidized  sub- 
stances are  removed  partly  or  entirely;  for  instance, 
calcium,  magnesium,  manganese,  etc.  Copper  is  not  so 
easily  oxidized,  and  remains  in  the  metal.  Aluminium, 
which  has  a  great  affinity  for  iron,  remains  in  greater 
part  combined  with  it.  We  see,  therefore,  that  nearly 
all  the  foreign  bodies  of  the  pig-metal  remain  in  the 
wrought-iron,  although  their  proportion  is  rendered 
smaller.  The  conversion  of  wrought-iron  into  steel  does 
not  separate  many  of  the  foreign  substances,  although  it 
has  been  advanced  on  some  reasonable  grounds  that  the 


260  IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

cementation  process  has  a  tendency  to  remove  sulphur, 
phosphorus  and  arsenic.  But  we  need  more  reliable 
comparative  analyses  to  arrive  at  a  certainty  on  this 
subject. 

That  some  of  the  foreign  metals  will  improve  the  qual- 
ity of  the  steel  in  hardness,  or  malleability,  or  tenacity, 
or  in  grain,  seems  pretty  certain.  Brass,  which  is  essen- 
tially a  compound  of  copper  and  zinc,  is  considerably 
improved  by  a  small  addition  of  lead,  not  only  in  ordi- 
nary castings,  but  also  for  rolled  sheets ;  in  this  rax1, 
lead,  by  producing  greater  homogeneousness,  gives  a 
better  grain,  more  hardness,  and  greater  malleability. 
The  proportions  of  the  foreign  substances  may  be  varied 
to  arrive  at  different  results,  in  the  same  manner  as  less 
lead  is  put  in  rolling  brass  than  in  brass  castings  for  the 
turner.  The  best  steel  is  that  which  is  best  adapted  to 
its  particular  purpose.  We  do  not  expect  or  desire  the 
same  malleability  in  a  hard  tool  steel,  a  graver  for  in- 
stance, as  in  a  steel  boiler  plate.  The  hardness  and 
malleability  of  steel  may  be  varied,  indeed,  by  more  or 
less  carbon.  But  we  believe  that  a  greater  homogeneous- 
ness  will  be  imparted  to  the  steel  by  one  or  more  other 
metals  appropriately  chosen  and  in  proper  proportions. 
Steel  is  already  a  sufficiently  complex  compound,  witness, 
for  instance,  the  formidable  array  of  foreign  metals  found 
ir  it,  and  given  above.  The  difficulty  is  to  know  which 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.  261 

of  these  metals  are  beneficial,  and  in  what  manner,  so  as 
to  make  them  preponderate  over  the  others.  It  is  a  very 
hard  question  to  decide  with  the  little  knowledge  on  the 
subject  which  exists  at  the  present  time.  It  will  require 
scientific  chemical  examination,  checked  by  accurate 
mechanical  tests  of  malleability,  hardness  and  tenacity, 
to  arrive  at  results  which  can  be  trusted. 

We  do  not  agree  with  Overman,  when  he  states,  page 
217,  that  arsenic,  phosphorus,  sulphur  and  silicon  are 
necessary  in  steel,  that  is,  in  the  ordinary  applications  of 
that  metal.  But  in  special  uses  of  ornamentation,  for 
instance,  where  tenacity  is  a  secondary  object,  and  fine- 
ness of  grain  and  sharpness  of  casting  are  all  important, 
phosphorus,  sulphur,  etc.,  may  do  well.  Indeed,  certain 
qualities  of  pig-metal,  highly  charged  with  phosphorus, 
are  employed  for  fine  castings,  which  must  be  sharp,  and 
are  not  expected  to  bear  severe  strains. 

It  seems  that  tungsten,  titanium,  chromium,  vanadium, 
etc.,  have  a  beneficial  effect  on  steel  within  certain  limits. 
They  harden  it  without  destroying  its  malleability  and 
weldability.  All  the  experiments  of  Stodart,  Faraday, 
Berzelius,  Stromeyer,  Clouet,  Breant,  Berthier  and  others 
demonstrate  that  all  the  different  metals  alloyed  with 
steel  increase  its  hardness.  We  find  that  this  fact  ac- 
counts for  the  difficulty  encountered  in  the  adoption  by 
Bessemer  Steel  Works  of  a  uniform  scale  of  hardness 


262  IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

based  on  the  percentage  of  carbon.  If  we  examine  the 
scales  adopted  in  Sweden,  Austria  and  Belgium,  we  see 
that  in  the  two  former  countries,  where  the  raw  metal  is 
of  the  same  purity,  they  agree  in  the  fact  that  the  same 
per  centage  of  carbon  separates  one  class  of  steel  from 
another.  If  we  compare  these  scales  with  the  Belgian 
one,  we  remark  that  the  steels  of  the  latter  cease  to  weld 
with  a  lower  per  centage  of  carbon  than  do  the  fornu T. 
The  practical  hardness  of  the  steels  for  the  various  uses 
in  the  arts  is  about  the  same  in  these  countries ;  but,  in 
the  one  case,  the  hardness  is  due  to  carbon  alone,  and  in 
the  other,  to  carbon  and  to  foreign  substances.  Indeed, 
the  materials  used  in  Belgium  for  the  manufacture  of 
steel  are  not  so  pure  as  those  employed  in  Austria  and 
Sweden.  Therefore,  for  a  given  hardness  in  practical 
use,  the  more  impure  the  steel,  the  less  carbon  it  requires 
— and  the  weldability  will  cease  with  less  carbon  for  iron 
alloyed  with  other  metals,  than  for  those  relatively  purer. 
Another  example  may  be  given  of  how  little  we  kin»\v 
about  the  influence  of  other  metals  on  steel.  The  subject 
is  manganese,  which  may  be  said  to  be  of  universal  HM 
in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  A  manufacturer  of  steel,  of 
evidently  great  practical  knowledge,  writes  that  he  has 
treated  steel  alloyed  with  manganese,  which  was  so  mal- 
leable that  it  was  unctuow  under  the  hammer.  Another 
writer,  known  for  his  knowledge  and  accuracy,  Captain 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN    STEEL.  263 

Caron,  states  that  manganese  renders  steel  brittle.  Now, 
with  all  regard  for  the  veracity  of  the  first  experimenter, 
we  suspect  that  he  brings  forward  one  of  those  incontro- 
vertible "  hard  facts,"  as  some  practical  men  call  them, 
which  require  a  little  looking  after.  Our  experi- 
menter, who  was  also  the  manufacturer  of  the  steel,  states 
that  that  steel  must  have  contained  three  times  more 
manganese  than  of  carbon,  in  which  case  it  is  a  kind  of 
spiegeleisen.  As  the  per  centage  of  manganese  was 
not  determined  from  the  bar  experimented  upon,  but  sur- 
mised from  the  mixture  put  in  the  pot,  it  may  very  well 
happen  that  the  steel  produced  contained  very  little  or 
no  manganese  at  all,  as  often  occurs.  Nevertheless 
more  light  is  required  on  the  subject  from  different  and 
reliable  parties. 

STEEL   ORES. 

Certain  kinds  of  iron  ores  are  said  to  produce  steel 
naturally.  We  do  not  see  how  they  can  succeed  in  doing 
so  without  some  help,  inasmuch  as  they  produce  also  the 
purest  and  softest  kinds  of  wrought-iron.  Putting  aside 
all  preposterous  notions  that  they  contain  within  them 
some  unknown  phlogistic  medium,  which  will  transform 
them  naturally  into  steel,  we  will  acknowledge  that  these 
ores  are  very  pure ;  that  is  to  say,  free  from  obnoxious 
elements,  or  combined  with  some  beneficial  ones.  Careful 
23 


264          IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL,. 

chemical  examination  will  determine  pretty  well  whether 
an  ore  will  make  a  good  steel  or  not.  Incorrect  con- 
clusions have  often  been  jumped  at  from  incomplete  or 
careless  examinations  of  ores.  Such  work  must  be  made 
in  a  thorough  and  reliable  manner.  What  certitude  can 
we  have  of  the  real  nature  of  an  iron  ore,  if  we  know 
only  its  per  centage  in  metal,  as  is  so  often  the  case  ? 
Besides  the  complete  knowledge  of  the  ore  employed,  we 
should  not  forget  either  that  the  fluxes,  the  fuels,  and  the 
mode  of  working  have  an  important  influence  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  metal  obtained. 

There  seems  to  be  a  prevailing  opinion  among  many 
iron  men  that  red  hematites  are  the  only  iron  ores  which 
will  give  a  pig-metal  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
Bessemer  steel.  This  belief  probably  arises  from  the 
fact  that  these  ores  are  quite  exclusively  used  for  that 
purpose  in  England.  The  countries  which  produce  an 
article  of  Bessemer  steel  superior  to  that  manufactured 
in  England  and  America,  use  other  ores.  Sweden  i-m- 
ploys  magnetites  ;  Austria  its  abundant  deposits  of  spathic 
irons ;  and  certain  works  of  France  smelt  pure  magnetic 
ores  imported  from  Sardinia  and  Algeria.  So  much  for 
red  hematites  being  the  only  suitable  ores.  Red  hema- 
tites, or  any  kind  of  iron  ores,  whatever  be  their  state  of 
oxidization,  will  produce  a  good  steel  if  they  are  free 
from  obnoxious  bodies,  and  not  poisoned  afterwards  by 


IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL.  265 

impurities  in  the  fluxes  and  fuels,  or  by  a  wrong  mode  of 
smelting  them.  In  Styria  and  Sweden,  the  ores  are  most 
carefully  sorted  and  roasted,  and  then  smelted  in  com- 
paratively small  blast  furnaces,  working  with  charcoal. 
The  modern  blast  furnace,  with  its  huge  dimensions,  is 
certainly  advantageous  in  lowering  the  cost  of  production, 
but  the  extreme  and  protracted  heat  to  which  the  ores 
and  fluxes  are  exposed  causes  the  reduction  to  the  metal- 
lic state  of  many  substances  which  become  alloyed  with 
the  pig-metal,  and  we  have  seen  their  great  influence  on 
the  quality  of  the  steel. 

The«  United  States  contain  large  deposits  of  ores 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  steel,  in  Missouri,  in  the 
region  of  Lake  Superior,  and  in  the  States  of  North  Caro- 
lina, Tennessee,  Alabama  and  Georgia.  To  our  know- 
ledge, the  ores  of  North  Carolina,  by  their  extent,  nature, 
purity  and  composition,  strongly  resemble  those  of  Sweden 
and  Norway. 

THE   APOTHECARY   SHOP   OF  STEEL   MANUFACTURE. 

Phosphorus  and  sulphur  are  the  greatest  sicknesses  to 
which  steel,  wrought  and  cast-iron  are  submitted.  Their 
treatment  has  been  attempted  several  times  with  drugs  and 
chemicals,  applied  in  very  small  or  in  quite  large  doses. 

Some  have  attempted  to  volatilize  the  sulphur  and 
phosphorus  by  adding  infinitesimal  proportions  of  the 


266  IMPROVEMENTS     IN     STEEL. 

chlorides,  bromides  and  iodides  of  sodium  or  potassium, 
under  the  supposition  that  the  volatile  compounds  of  sul- 
phur and  phosphorus  with  iodine,  bromine,  etc.,  would  be 
formed.  This  transformation,  under  the  circumstances 
of  the  work,  is  not  certain,  and  the  really  useful  part  of 
the  alkaline  salt  used  is  its  base,  which  combines  with  the 
impurities,  and  retains  them  in  the  cinder.  Another  pro- 
poses the  addition  of  minute  proportions  of  the  precious 
metals,  etc.,  etc. 

Passing  now  to  the  serious  part  of  the  work,  we  see  that 
chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt),  chloride  of  calcium, 
nitrate  of  soda,  etc.,  in  sufficient  quantities,  have  been  tried 
with  more  or  less  success.  Some  of  these  substances  are  in- 
tended to  have  an  oxidizing  action  by  their  volatile  part, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  their  base  is  to  combine  with  the 
sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acids,  which  are  thus  separated 
from  the  metal.  Interesting  results  have  been  obtained, 
especially  with  the  employment  of  nitrate  of  soda,  and 
it  has  been  found  possible  to  remove  the  greater  part 
of  the  phosphorus  from  impure  pig-iron.  But  the  cost  is 
too  great,  and,  at  the  present  time,  we  hear  little  about 
the«e  experiments.  Not  only  are  the  infinitesimal  doses 
of  no  avail  whatever,  but  the  neutralizing  substances 
must  be  employed  in  greater  proportions  than  is  necessary 
for  combination  with  the  impurities,  because  the  silica  of 
the  cinders  and  of  the  hearth  will  absorb  a  great  quao- 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL.  267 

tity  of  the  base  of  the  salt,  and  prevent  its  action  upon 
the  phosphoric  acid,  for  instance.  Although  we  consider 
the  method  of  purification  of  iron  by  drugs  and  chemicals 
as  too  expensive  at  the  present  time,  we  believe  that  the 
best  mode  of  operation  will  be  to  inject  the  finely  pow- 
dered materials  with  the  blast  through  the  tuyeres  of  a 
cupola,  for  instance. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Under  this  head  we  give  several  extracts,  taken  from 
the  Iron  Age  and  from  other  sources,  and  which  are 
complementary  to  what  is  already  to  be  found  in  Over- 
man's work  on  the  nature  and  properties  of  steel,  and  the 
manner  of  working  it. 

The  absolute  tenacity  of  steel  decreases  in  a  certain 
ratio  with  the  increase  of  the  proportion  of  carbon,  and 
the  elongation  before  breaking  is  greater  as  the  proportion 
of  carbon  is  less. 

Steel  increases  in  volume  by  hardening.  If  the  article 
be  of  a  prismatic  shape,  a  bar  for  instance,  the  increase  in 
dimensions  is  on  the  thickness  and  width,  whereas  the 
length  has  diminished. 

Every  kind  of  steel  requires  to  be  treated  in  its  own 
manner,  which  is  often  the  cause  that  the  most  skilful 
workman  rejects  a  good  material  to  which  he  has  not 
been  accustomed.  Those  kinds  which  are  poor  in  carbon, 


268  IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 

as  well  as  the  soft  and  ordinary  ones,  require  a  higher 
temperature  before  cooling  than  those  richer  in  carbon. 
Besides,  steel  is  the  more  easily  hardened  the  more  it  has 
been  condensed  by  hammering,  and  the  finer  its  grain 
has  become.  If  it  is  to  possess  more  hardness  than  elas- 
ticity, it  must  be  heated  to  a  higher  temperature  and 
cooled  quicker  than  if  the  opposite  qualities  are  desired. 

Tools  of  unequal  thicknesses  have  their  thicker  end  put 
in  the  fire  first.  The  coals  must  glow  well,  and  ought  to 
burn  without  flame  or  sparks,  in  order  that  the  workmen 
may  readily  observe  the  heat  of  the  steel,  and  may  sur- 
round it  uniformly,  so  that  it  be  not  exposed  directly  to 
the  blast. 

If  only  certain  parts  of  a  piece  are  to  be  hardened,  and 
if  others  are  to  remain  soft,  the  latter  are  often  coated 
with  clay,  so  that  they  may  be  less  exposed  to  the  heat, 
and  may  not  come  into  intimate  contact  with  the  harden- 
ing liquid. 

Files  are  generally  immersed  in  a  solution  of  salt, 
thickened  with  flour  or  yeast,  and  are  placed  in  the  fire 
after  the  coating  has  dried. 

In  order  to  produce  a  uniform  heat,  metallic  baths, 
especially  glowing,  liquid  lead,  have  been  recommended. 
For  small  articles,  such  as  razors  (according  to  Chester- 
field in  Sheffield),  one  may  use  a  bath  of  salt,  calcined 
soda,  chloride  of  zinc,  and  other  neutral  mineral  salta 
heated  to  redness. 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL.  269 

By  cooling  steel  in  boiling  water,  no  remarkable  har- 
dening takes  place,  although  peculiar  molecular  changes 
may  otherwise  be  produced. 

A  hardening  liquid  composed  of  1  part  of  oil  of  vitriol 
to  30  or  40  parts  of  water,  was  regarded  as  a  great  secret 
by  English  file  cutters.  Such  a  bath  possesses  a  cleansing 
action,  by  dissolving  the  oxidized  parts.  Old  files  are 
said  to  be  sharpened  to  a  certain  extent  by  immersing 
them,  without  heating,  in  a  similar  bath. 

If,  aside  from  hardness,  the  steel  is  to  attain  as  much 
elasticity  as  possible,  less  cold  water  should  be  employed, 
and  its  power  of  conducting  heat  ought  to  be  lessened  by 
certain  additions,  such  as  small  quantities  of  soap  (satu- 
rated soap  water  is  said  not  to  harden  at  all),  slimy  sub- 
stances, charcoal  dust  moistened  with  water,  etc. 

In  Switzerland,  according  to  A.  Kieser,  cast-steel  for 
cutting  tools  is  hardened  in  a  remarkably  excellent  man- 
ner by  dipping  it,  in  a  dark-red  condition,  into  a  mixture 
of  four  parts  yellow  rosin,  two  parts  train  oil,  and  one 
part  molten  tallow,  after  which  it  is  again  placed  in  the 
fire  without  cleaning  and  then  cooled  in  water. 

Long  pieces  which  are  not  flat,  as  for  instance,  files, 
must  be  immersed  in  the  direction  of  their  longitudinal 
axes,  and  then  moved  about  in  the  water  with  a  certain 
rapidity.  Flat  and  thin  articles  are  to  be  immersed  with 
their  thinner  edge.  If  the  objects,  as  knives  and  sword 


270  IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 

blades,  possess  a  wedge-shaped  form,  they  are  generally 
inserted  with  their  thicker  end,  which  cools  off  more 
slowly  than  the  thin  one.  However,  the  opposite  method 
may  be  recommendable,  namely :  In  cases  where  the  edge 
is  made  of  another  material  than  the  back,  and  when 
fatty  substances  are  being  used  for  cooling. 

It  is  very  important  to  immerse  the  entire  glowing  part 
of  the  articles  in  the  hardening  water,  or  to  immerse 
them  completely,  according  to  circumstances,  otherwise 
there  may  be  flaws  on  the  water-line.  Large  objects 
should  not  be  withdrawn  until  they  are  completely  cooled. 

Since  flaws  are  produced  less  easily  when  the  cooling 
is  performed  in  fatty  substances  instead  of  water,  the 
water  is  often  covered  with  a  layer  of  oil  or  fat,  through 
which  the  steel  has  to  pass  before  it  reaches  the  water. 

Most  articles  of  irregular  form  are  liable  to  warp,  for 
instance,  hollow  chisels,  half-round  files,  etc.,  or  such  as 
consist  of  wrought -iron  plated  with  steel  on  one  side.  In 
these  cases,  the  steel  side  easily  gets  crooked  ;  hence  it  is 
necessary  to  immerse  the  object  in  a  particular  manner, 
and  to  move  it  about  in  the  liquid  in  a  special  way.  It 
may  also  be  well  to  bend  it  in  the  opposite  way  during 
forging,  so  that  it  may  become  straight  in  hardening. 
Articles  of  very  unequal  dimensions,  such  as  eccentric 
rings,  are  lined  with  a  piece  of  iron  at  the  thinner  places, 
so  that  they  may  be  uniformly  heated  and  cooled.  Small 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL.  271 

articles  that  are  also  long,  and  would  therefore  warp 
easily,  are  packed  in  fagots  by  means  of  wire,  and  thus 
heated  and  cooled.  Flat  articles  may  be  retained  in 
shape  by  pressing  and  cooling  them  between  iron  plates. 
There  is  one  condition  to  be  fulfilled,  which  is  of  essen- 
tial influence  for  the  process  of  hardening,  namely,  the 
previous  working  of  the  steel.  If  the  surface  thereby 
produced  be  denser  in  one  place  than  in  another,  one 
may  be  certain  that  it  will  warp  in  hardening ;  hence  not 
less  depends  upon  the  dexterity  of  the  blacksmith  than 
upon  the  workman  who  performs  the  operation  in  ques- 
tion. Since,  in  certain  patterns,  an  unequal  density  can- 
not be  avoided,  the  article  should  be  brought  to  a  low 
red  heat  before  being  hardened,  and  if  it  has  become 
bent,  it  should  be  straightened  out.  Large  articles  should 
first  be  hammered  out  well  on  the  surface,  so  that  this 
latter  may  become  denser.  With  steel  rollers  this  may 
be  done  by  adjusting  them  in  a  frame,  and  by  allowing 
steel  bars  to  pass  through  them  under  heavy  pressure. 

According  to  the  experience  of  Ede,  in  the  arsenal  at 
Woolwich,  steel  with  a  brilliant  metallic  surface  is  more 
readily  exposed  to  flaws  than  steel  with  a  thin  skin  of 
oxide. 

For  surface  hardening,  H.  Vaughn  immerses  wrought- 
iron  articles  in  a  glowing  liquid  bath  of  25  parts  prussiate 
of  potassa,  65  parts  common  salt,  and  10  parts  bichromate 


272  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  STEEL. 

of  potassa,  to  which  powdered  horn  or  animal  charcoal 
has  been  added.  The  articles  are  hardened  in  water. 
For  steel,  he  uses  a  bath  consisting  of  4  parts  prussiate  of 
potassa,  12  common  salt,  and  2  bichromate  of  potassa. 
For  polished  steel,  which  would  otherwise  be  injured,  he 
replaces  the  bichromate  of  potassa  partly  or  wholly  by 
an  equal  quantity  of  a  mixture  for  hardening  files,  which, 
according  to  Dittmarr,  is  composed  of  16  parts  charcoal 
obtained  by  carbonizing  waste  from  hoofs,  horn,  or 
leather,  2  of  oven  soot,  and  1  part  of  common  salt.  From 
this  a  paste  is  made  by  the  addition  of  some  clay,  water, 
vinegar  or  beer  yeast.  The  files  are  covered  with  this 
paste,  then  dried  in  warm  air,  heated  to  a  cherry  red,  and 
hardened  in  a  solution  of  salt.  They  are  then  pickled  in 
diluted  oil  of  vitriol,  rinsed  in  Jime  and  pure  water, 
brushed  and  oiled,  after  having  been  dried  in  hot  air. 
Eckmann  says  that  steel  acquires  a  very  hard  surface  if 
the  hardening  powder  be  mixed  with  a  solution  of  arse- 
nious  acid  in  muriatic  acid,  as  then,  by  heating,  a  bril- 
liant white  layer  of  an  alloy  of  iron  and  arsenic  is  forim-d, 
which  is  not  liable  to  rust. 

Wrought  and  cast-iron  may  be  hardened,  according  to 
Johnson,  if  immersed  hot  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  bath  of 
50  parts  fat,  50  oil,  35  charcoal,  25  yellow  prussiate  of 
potassa,  33  horn,  and  30  nitrate  of  potassa.  Karmarsch 
mentions  that  the  points  and  edges  of  tools  (pointed  ham- 


IMPROVEMENTS   IN   STEEL.  273 

mers,  etc.)  may  be  hardened  by  sticking  them  for  a  mo- 
ment, when  bright  red,  into  a  paste  of  1  part  prussiate  of 
potassa,  1  part  potassa,  2  green  soap,  2  lard  or  tallow, 
and  then  cooling  them  in  water. 

Another  recipe,  which,  however,  was  known  to  Agricola 
(1561),  prescribes  the  dipping  of  the  welding  hot  wrought- 
iron  into  molten  pig-metal,  a  few  moments  being  sufficient 
to  produce  a  cementation  of  the  thickness  of  a  line  (1-1 2th 
inch). 

In  consequence  of  a  great  and  protracted  heat,  case- 
hardened  articles  assume  a  coarse  crystalline  texture,  and 
then  get  brittle.  This  change,  according  to  Carre,  can 
be  obviated  entirely  if  the  articles,  when  withdrawn  from 
the  cementation  boxes,  are  heated  as  quickly  as  possible 
to  the  highest  temperature  which  they  attained  by  cemen- 
tation, and  then  allowed  to  cool  in  the  air.  The  harden- 
ing is  afterwards  accomplished  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Crude  steel  and  steel  of  cementation  weld  easier  than 
cast-steel  which  is  prepared  from  the  former  by  remelting, 
although  this  latter  has  rather  undergone  a  diminution 
than  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  carbon.  Cast-steel 
gains  in  weldability,  when  made  to  glow  for  some  time 
excluded  from  the  air,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  slowly, 
whereby,  as  is  well  known,  a  partial  separation  of  chemi- 
cally combined  carbon  takes  place. 

In  welding  steel  and  wrought-iron,  the  latter  is  first 


274  IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 

placed  in  the  fire,  or  both  are  heated  separately.  The 
steel  must  be  brought  up  to  the  proper  temperature  as 
rapidly  as  possible  and  excluded  from  the  air ;  it  is  best 
done  with  charcoal  and  good  coke,  since  coals,  on  account 
of  the  feet  that  they  contain  sulphur,  produce  a  thin 
layer  of  sulphide  or  sulphate  of  iron,  which  prevents 
proper  welding. 

As  a  welding  mixture,  Th.  Rust  recommends  41.5 
parts  of  boracic  acid,  3.5  common  salt,  15.5  prussiate  of 
potassa,  and  8  calcined  soda  ash. 

Habich  prescribes  7  parts  of  anhydrous  prussiate  of 
potassa,  2  calcined  soda  ash,  and  more  or  less  burned 
borax,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  steel.  Ermer 
recommends  to  dissolve  in  water  8  parts  of  borax,  1  sal- 
ammoniac,  1  yellow  prussiate  of  potassa,  and  to  evaporate 
the  solution  at  a  low  heat  to  dryness.  When  strongly 
heated,  violent  explosions  may  occur  by  the  formation  of 
chloride  of  nitrogen.  Another  method  is  as  follows : 
Borax  is  fused  with  1-1  Oth  of  its  weight  of  sal-ammoniac, 
and  to  the  vitreous  mass  the  same  quantity  of  burned 
lime  is  added.  Still  another  employs  8  parts  of  heavy 
spar,  1  part  of  gall  of  glass,  and  1  of  black  oxide  of  man- 
ganese. 

In  welding,  at  first,  light,  then  heavy  blows  are  given, 
so  that  the  slag  may  escape  from  the  joints,  whereupon 
the  outer  surfaces  are  united. 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL.  275 

Since  hard  steel  is  tempered  (after  hardening)  sooner 
than  soft,  and  the  latter  sooner  than  iron,  the  various 
kinds  of  steel  do  not  always  exhibit  the  same  degree  of 
hardness,  although  they  may  show  the  same  tempering 
colors.  There  appear  small  differences,  inasmuch  as  a 
brand  cooled  at  a  bright  yellow  heat  may  become  as  hard 
as  one  cooled  when  of  a  straw  yellow  color ;  or  another 
one  may  get  as  hard  when  violet  as  one  that  has  been 
dark  blue.  In  some  cases,  especially  when  a  particular 
hardness  is  required,  as  is  desirable  for  the  edges  of  astro- 
nomical and  philosophical  instruments,  and  when  the  steel 
is  rich  in  carbon,  it  may  be  proper  to  conduct  the  tempering 
at  such  a  low  temperature  that  no  colors  appear  at  all. 
And  in  order  that  the  operator  should  not  be  subject  to 
delusion  in  observing  the  change  referred  to,  the  steel 
should  have  a  shining,  and  sometimes  polished,  surface, 
and  be  uniformly  heated. 

Since  the  colors  owe  their  appearance  to  the  formation 
of  an  exceedingly  thin  superficial  skin  of  oxide,  it  is  evi 
dent  that  the  steel,  when  withdrawn  from  the  fire,  does 
not  retain  its  first  color,  but  there  appear  other  colors  in 
consequence  of  a  subsequent  oxidation  by  the  air,  until 
the  steel  is  sufficiently  cool.  Of  a  certain  color,  one  can 
only  judge  with  certainty  by  examining  the  conditions 
under  which  it  occurs.  If  two  pieces  of ,  the  same  steel 
are  heated  until  the  yellow  color  appears,  and  if  one  is 
24 


276  IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 

withdrawn,  it  may  become  in  the  air  purple,  violet,  and 
finally  blue,  while  the  other  piece  assumes  the  same  colors 
in  the  fire.  However,  if  both  pieces  when  blue  are 
dipped  into  water,  they  acquire  different  degrees  of  hard- 
ness, that  is,  the  one  which  turned  blue  in  the  air  will  be 
harder  than  the  one  left  in  the  fire.  Hence  it  follows 
that  proper  caution  must  be  observed  in  this  respect,  and 
steel  must  either  be  cooled  rapidly,  when  the  right  color 
appears  in  the  fire,  or  it  must  be  withdrawn  at  a  pre- 
ceding color,  if  the  desired  shade  is  to  appear  after 
tempering. 

In  tempering  scythes  and  similar  tools,  they  are  stuck 
in  a  layer  of  hot  sand  or  hammer  slag,  spread  on  a  heated 
plate,  and  sometimes  only  the  hot  sand  is  spread  over 
them.  For  sword  blades,  for  instance,  the  thicker  parts 
are  heated  by  a  red-hot  piece  of  cast-iron  having  the 
proper  shape ;  and  if  the  edges  are  to  be  harder  than 
the  other  parts,  they  may  be  rubbed  with  a  potato  or 
beet. 

Parkes  has  proposed  the  following  alloys  for  tempering 
baths.  They  are  suitable  in  some  particular  cases,  and 
their  temperature  should  be  maintained  near  the  melting 
point,  without  over  heating : 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 


277 


Alloys  in 
parts  of 

Melting 
point  F.o 

Tempering 

Applicable  for. 

Lead. 

Tin. 

7 

14 
19 

30 

48 
Boiling 
seed 
Meltin 

Lin- 
oil. 
gLead. 

430° 
440° 
451° 
460° 
480° 
500° 
520° 
540° 
660° 

600° 

Light  yellow. 
Straw  yellow. 
Oat  yellow. 
Gold  yellow. 
Purple  red. 
Pigeon  throat. 
Pigeon  throat. 
Violet. 
Copper  red. 

Dark  blue. 
Water. 

Lancets. 
Other  chirurgical  instruments. 
Razors. 
Penknives,  gravers,  etc. 
Larger  knives,  scalpels,  etc. 
Scissors,  cold  chisels,  etc. 
Axes,  plane  irons,  pocket  knives. 
Table  knives,  large  scissors. 
Sword  blades,  watch  springs. 

Saw  blades  and  some  kinds  of  springs. 
Articles  a  little  softer  than  above. 

The  fracture  of  hammered  or  tilted  steel  is  often  oblique, 
angular  and  rugged,  and  the  broken  surface  presents  a 
quantity  of  small  and  sharp  p'oints.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  fracture  of  rolled  steel  is  more  even  and  the  grains 
are  rather  rounded  in  shape. 

Of  two  kinds  of  cast  steel  possessing  the  same  hardness 
and  the  same  fineness  of  grain,  the  purer  is  the  more 
malleable,  and  the  difference  is  the  more  appreciable  as 
the  percentage  of  carbon  is  greater. 

Steel  articles  which  have  warped  during  annealing, 
had  better  be  slightly  heated  for  the  straightening  pro- 
cess which  precedes  hardening.  The  proper  temperature 
is  that  which  allows  of  handling  the  articles  with  a  thick 
leather  glove. 

Steel  should  be  brought  up  rapidly  to  the  desired  tem- 
perature, because  a  slow  and  protracted  heat  changes  its 
molecular  structure,  and  diminishes  its  tenacity  and  mal- 
leability. 


'278  IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL. 

Screw  and  key  files,  cut  at  the  edges  only,  and  other 
thin  and  flat  articles,  should  be  filed  or  ground  length- 
wise before  hardening,  in  order  to  diminish  breakage. 
The  furrows  produced  by  cross  filing  or  grinding  cause 
many  breaks  during  the  hardening  process. 

When,  for  nearly  finished  articles,  somewhat  out  of 
shape,  the  iron  hammer  cannot  be  employed,  they  are 
straightened  upon  a  wooden  block  with  wooden  mallets. 
In  this  case,  the  steel  must  be  heated  until  it  acquires  a 
blue,  violet,  or  pigeon-throat  color,  otherwise,  by  the  har- 
dening process,  it  will  resume  its  previous  deformed  shape. 

A  thin  paste  with  water,  of  75  parts  of  fine  wood  ashes 
and  25  of  fat  clay  without  sand,  and  applied  not  too 
thickly  with  a  brush  upon  steel,  is  a  good  protection 
against  the  action  of  the  fire,  and  does  not  change  the 
nature  of  the  metal. 

Scythes  are  hardened  in  hot,  and  sometimes  boiling, 
baths  of  tallow  mixed  with  a  small  proportion  of  rosin. 

When  steel  is  hardened  by  dipping  it  into  mercury,  its 
grain  becomes  finer  than  when  any  other  cooling  com- 
pound is  employed. 

Steel  does  not  require  tempering  when,  as  by  watch- 
makers, it  is  hardened  by  pressing  it  into  a  block  of  cold 
lead. 

Steel  blades  which  become  curved  by  hardening,  are 
straightened  cold  with  hammers,  the  striking  surface  of 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    STEEL.  279 

which  forms  an  obtuse  angle.  The  blow  is  given  on  the 
concave  part,  in  order  to  lengthen  the  fibres  on  that  side. 
Even  then  it  is  preferable  to  heat  the  articles  slightly, 
and  to  cool  them  in  water  immediately  after  the  defect 
has  been  remedied. 


The  census  tables  show  that  the  money  value  of  all 
the  products  of  steel  manufactured  in  the  United  Statea 
was 

In  1850 $    172,080 

1860 1,778,240 

1870 9,609,986 


INDEX. 


Action  of  manganese  and 
eisen  

PAGE 

spiegel- 
....       ..  254 

Boiling  

PAGE 

108 

158 

155 

273 

178 

Borax  for  case  hardening  
Boxes,  cementing  „ 

69 
124 

Alloys  

203 

Alloys,  hardness  of.  
Alloys  of  Parkes 

205 
276 

BOXPS'  mnvprtinc- 

Alloys  of  steel 

"Brass  ' 

)  261 

59 

.   .  .         259 

278 

American  steel  

145 
156 

248 

259 

Cake 

110 

57   62 

nnealing  of  steel  
ntbracite  

207 
178 

Camphor  for  case  hardening.... 
Cams  

69 

19 

Carbon  added  to  wrought  iron. 

232 
217,  218 
228 
151 
167 
263 
252 

nvil  for  hammers  
nvil-log 

88 

on 

Carbon  in  steel  
Carbon  necessary  for  steel  
Care  with  the  iron  
Caron  on  manganese  

Apothecary  shop  of  steel  making....  265 

Atoms  of  combination  

219 

Case  hardening  

67 

Bars,  selection  of  converted 

176 
278 

143 
151 
45 

159 

Cast  iron,  conversion  into  steel. 
Cast  Iron,  welding  to  steel  

...  268 

235 

Cast  steel                    .        ..42 

135,  173 
183 

RT  "l         T> 

75 

78 

Cause  of  colors  in  steel  
Cement  
Cementation,  degree  of.  
Cementing  boxes  
Census  of  steel  

189 
126,  160 
128 
124 

84,  239,  244 
129,  153,  184 

Blistered  steel  40,  120, 

Blue-ovens  

...    81 

279 

282 


INDEX. 


PAOI 

Chabote                                                  89 

JPAOl 

Characteristics  of  good  steel  47 
Characteristics  of  steel  191,  228 
Charcoal  151  160   179 

Expense  of  conversion  175 
Expense  of  steel  making  112 

Charcoal  forge  fires  82 
Charging  a  blast  furnace  157 

Experiments  in  steel  making  161 
Experiments  with  alloys  261 

Charges  of  blast  furnace  157 
Charging  of  the  boxes                         125 

Chest,  converting  162 

Chests  of  converting  furnace  124 
Cheat*,  material*  for  165 

Files  268 
Filw,  hardening  of  64 
Fine  cast  steel                                      183 

Clay  for  cage  hardening  69 
Cloning  of  a  heat                                   172 

Fining  229 

Coal,  hard,  forge  for.  19 
Cohesion  of  steel  196 
Coke  178 
Ooke  for  furnaces  141 
Color  of  good  steel                                 47 

Fire-clay  for  pots  179 
Flre«,  refining  117,  130 
Firing  of  a  furnace  170 
Flaws,  to  avoid  270 

C..|..r-  f.,r  t.-ii.|..TinK'  '•» 
Colors  in  tempering  189 

Fluids,  refrigerating  62 
Flux.    ...                                31   180 

Colors  of  steel  276 

Fluxes                                                     99 

Combining  numbers  219 

Fluxes  to  be  avoided  152 

Compression,  hardening  by  M 
Condition  of  hardening  271 

Force  hammer*  95 
Forgo  fire  15 
Forge  for  hard  coal                                 19 

Converted  bars  selection  of.  176 

Forge  tools                                          26 

Converter,  the  236,  244 
Converting  chest                                  162 

Forges,  portable  21 
Forging                                                   n 

Cooling  of  steel-  63 

Copper  in  steel  259 

Form  of  hearth                                   IKS 

Crucibles  136 

Form  of  iron                                    1C7 

Crui-ibUti  of  magnesia                ....,.*  flf) 

Crude  iron         "                                  151 

Curving                                                 278 

Fuel  30   171 

Cutlery  hardening  of.  66 

Km  1  for  steel                                         17s 

Fuels  249,  250 

Damascus  steel  66,76,  147 
Decarbnrizing    240,  243 
Degree  of  cementation  128 
Degrees  of  heat  for  forging  13 
Dies,  steel  .„..„  66 

Furnaces,  air,  form  of.  178 
Furnaces,  converting  121 
Furnaces,  double  17'J 
Furnaces,  firing  of  170 
Furnace,  reverberatory  248 

Dimensions  of  hearth  103 

Difficulties  in  making  German  steel.  148 
Difficulties  in  making  steel...  163 
Double  furnaces  179 

Funibility  of  steel  m 
Fusion  of  steel  HI 

Ganister  140 

Gases,  heating  by  248 

Klatiticity  of  steel  196 

German  steel    ....  71  81  148  1K4   2"! 

Klomont*  for  steel  .......             .      ,149 

Elements  in  constitution  of  steel  217 
England,  steel  made  in  ...    120 

General  remarks  on  making  steel...  147 
Glass  powder  .180 

INDEX. 


283 


WE 

108 

194 

1(52 

27 
i:s:s 

19 
61 
67 
50 

48 

54 
55 

207 
268 
205 

m 
103 
152 
172 
18 

101 

277 
''•IS 

Making  blistered  steel  

PA  OK 
153 

Grain  of  steel 

Making  iron  for  conversion  157 
Making  of  crucibles  136 
Making  steel  95,  101 
Making  steel  in  puddling  furnace...  115 
Making  steel,  remarks  on  147 

Hammers  

Hammers,  tilt  

Hardening  by  compression  

Manganese  

177,  203 

152 

M'lnff'ineso  in  stpel 

233 

Hardening  files 

Manipulation  for  steel  .... 

105 
248 

Hardening  of  steel  46, 

Materials  for  chests 

165 

179 

Hardness  of  alloys  
Hardness  of  steel  

Mercury  bath  
Metal,  homogeneous  
Metallic  baths  . 
Metals  alloyed  with  iron 

278 
233 
268 
259 

Hearth  

Heat  closing  of  a  .  . 

241 

136 
113 
228 
239 

Heat  in  steel  making  
Heating    

Methods,  German  

Mirror  iron 

llc'inatites  

2114 
2:;:! 
17 
151 
212 

72 
214 
149 
227 
156 

we 

1I17 

148 

lf.7 
1M 
ir.ii 
ins 
130 

272 
SB 
171 

ir,o 

1K1 

2.12 
I/ill 
224 
2C,I 
1911 

Money  value  of  steel  
Mould  the 

279 
144 

Homogeneous  metal  

248 

Hot  blast  to  be  avoided  
Hypothesis  on  steel  making  

Natural  steel  

81 
183 

Needles  hardening  of 

55 

ngot  making  
'.  mportant  elements  for  steel  
!  mprovements  in  steel  

New  box,  use  of  a  
Ore  for  German  steel  

167 

148 

210 

r  >n*  'inilvsis  of 

149 

150 

ron,  good,  for  conversion.....  
ron,  making,  for  conversion  

265 

Ore,  magnetic  
Ores  steel 

156,  224 
263 

U 

ron  size  of           

Parke's  alloys 

276 

231 

....     147 

Joints  in  welding  
Judgment  required  

225 

Persian  blades  *  
Phenomena  in  steel  making.... 
Phosphorus  in  iron  
Pig-iron  
Pillars  for  hammers  
Plates  boiler    

77 
251 
241 

100 

89 
256 

Length  of  exposure  of  pots  

Magnetic  ore  
Magnetic  ores  
Magnetites  

Portable  forges  
Potash  as  a  flux  

21 
34 
181 

Magnetism  of  steel  

Pots  

179 

284 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Pots,  melting  ~  13€ 
Process  of  Bessemer-  -  235 
Process  of  Martin  248 
Process  of  Parry  231 

PAOB 
Sound  ol  steel  .....  195 
Spathic  ores  264 
Special  uses  of  alloys  261 
Specific  gravity  of  steel  197 

Process  of  Uchatius         230 

Spectroscope  ....    243 

Specular  ore  168 

jng  ftfl 
Puddled  steel  ~  229 
Puddling  furnace.!  116 

Speed  of  tilt  hammer  93 
Spiegeleiaen  239 
Spiegeleiaen  action  of.  -  254 
Split  joint                                               36 

Pure  ore  for  steel      161 

Spring  Bteel  153 

Quality  of  steel,  test  of  46 
Quick  case  hardening  68 

Steel  allovs  258 
Steel  alloys  of  176 
Steel,  annealing  of  207 
Steel'  American  145 

Rails,  steel  ^.  245 

Steel,  blistered  120,163,  184 
Steel,  cast  173 

Rationale  of  refrigeration  of  Bteel...  186 
Refining  fires  117,  130 

Steel,  characteristics  of  191 
Steel,  cohesion  of.  195 
Steel,  colors  of......  275 

Refining  of  steel  115 
Refrigerating  fluids  62 
Refrigeration  of  steel  186 
Regenerative  furnace  248 
Remarks  on  making  steel  147 
Requisites  of  Bessemer  pig-iron  241 
Reverberatory  furnace  248 

Steel,  conversion  of  cast  iron  into...   I.I 
Steel,  Damascus  147 
Steel  dies  66 
Steel  direct  from  ore  234 
Steel,  elasticity  of.  196 
Steel  for  weapons  147 
Steel  fracture  of           277 

Reverberatory  furnace  for  steel  178 
Rotary  blacksmith's  tuyere  17 
Rusts'  welding  mixture  274 

Steel  from  wrought  iron  232 
Steel,  fusibility  of.  197 
Steel  fusion  of  141 

Sal  ammoniac  as  a  flux  33 
Salt  for  case  hardening  69 
Salt  in  hardening  268 

Steel,  general  remarks  on  making...  147 
Steel,  German  71,  81,  148,  184,  221 
Steel  grain  of.  194 
Steel'  hardness  of.  183 

Steel  hardening  of  207 

Steel  improvements  in                       "'7 

Saw  blades  ~  163 
Scale*  of  steel                                     247 

Bteel  made  in  England  120 

Scarf  joint                                        .    40 
ScorincaUon  242 
Scythes  hardened  278 

Steel,  making  95,  101 
Steel,  making  in  puddling  furnai  •••..  11. 
Bteel   natural                                         -1 

Selection  of  converted  bars  176 
Seraing's  scale                                      247 

Steel  nature  of.  I*-'. 

Sh-ift  for  tilt  hammer                             92 

Shear  hammer  132,  133 

Steel   ore  for      210 

Shear  steel  42,  132,  169,  182,  184 
Shrinkage  69 

Silh'C'an'd'iron!.'".'.'.^".'"."."^^*"  216 
Silicon  in  iron  156,  241 

Steel   puddled                                         tfl 
iteel  1  rails  !..!..!..!!.!!                '.'.'.  "\:. 
Steel,  refining  of  115 
*te,-l!  refrigeration  of  !  186 

gilex  „  _  221 
Silex  in  iron  ».  156 
Silver  steel              .      176 
Size  of  furnace  169 
Size  of  iron  -  ~  168 

Steel  sound  of.  195 
St.-el,  specific  gravity  of.  197 
JU**'l  tenacity  of  ••  267 
tool,  texture  of.  !.  194 

Skill  in  analysis  of  Iron    156 

SU't-l*  vurietie*  of                                         71 

t-.o-.ii,  '.-n  I'U'le-t                                              78 

Steel,  welding  properties  of  1'JS 

INDEX. 


285 


Steel,  welding  to  cast  iron. 
Steel,  what  is  it?  
Straightening  
Stourbridge  clay  

PAGE 

45 
200,  217,  227 
277 
136 

TTchatius'  process  230 
Uses  of  alloys  261 

Varieties  of  steel  71 

Swedish  iron  
Tap  holes  

120,  222 
128 

Various  methods  of  making  steel....  228 
Vaughn's  hardening  baths.  271 

...    92 

War,  steel  for  147 

Tenacity  of  steel  267 
Tempering  59,62,188,  278 

Water  for.  tilt  hammer  93 
Weapons,  steel  for.  147 
Weight,  gain  in,  of  steel  129 

46 

.  194 

Welding  properties  .'  198 
Welding  steel  .    42 

Theories  in  regard  to  steel 
Tilting         

200 
130,  134 
...  173   182 

Welding  steel  to  cast  iron  45 

Welding  wootz                                      44 

iiinng  01  steei  

85   133 

Wheel  for  tilt  hammer  93 
"  Wheelswarf."  126 

:::.:::..„:  u 

160 

White  cast  iron  159 

26 
26 

268 

Wipers  92 

Tools,  forge  

Wire  draw  plates  39 
Wolfs                                                      81 

Trial  bars        

171 

Wx>tz  72  147   221 

Trial  rods  

128 

16   103 

Wootz  welding  of  44 

Working  a  converting  furnace  127 
Wrought  iron  steel  «...  233 

Tuyeres  the  •  §•••• 

:::::.....  !:  238 

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With  an  Appendix  concerning  American  Marbles.  I2mo.,  cloth  $1.50 
BOOTH  and  MORFIT.— The  Encyclopaedia  of  Chemistry, 

Practical  and  Theoretical : 

Embracing  its  application  to  the  Arts,  Metallurgy,  Mineralogy, 
Geology,  Medicine  and  Pharmacy.  By  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Melter 
and  Refiner  in  the  United  States  Mint,  Professor  of  Applied  Chem- 
istry in  the  Franklin  Institute,  etc.,  assisted  by  CAMPBELL  MORFIT, 
author  of  "  Chemical  Manipulations,"  etc.  Seventh  Edition.  Com- 
plete in  one  volume,  royal  8vo.,  978  pages,  with  numerous  wood-cuts 
and  other  illustrations  .......  $5.00 

BRAM WELL.— The  Wool  Carder's  Vade-Mecum: 

A  Complete  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Carding  Textile  Fabrics.  By  W. 
C.  BRAMWELL.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated. 
Pp.  400.  I2mo $2.50 

BRANNT.— A    Practical   Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetable 

Fats  and  Oils : 

Comprising  both  Fixed  and  Volatile  Oils,  their  Physical  and  Chemi- 
cal Properties  and  Uses,  the  Manner  of  Extracting  and  Refining 
them,  and  Practical  Rules  for  Testing  them ;  as  well  as  the  Manu- 
facture of  Artificial  Butter,  Lubricants,  including  Mineral  Lubricating 
Oils,  etc.,  and  on  Ozokerite.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of 
DRS.  KARL  SCHAEPLER,  G.  W.  ASKINSON,  and  RICHARD  BRUNNER, 
with  Additions  and  Lists  of  American  Patents  relating  to  the  Extrac- 
tion, Rendering,  Refining,  Decomposing,  and  Bleaching  of  Fats  and 
Oils.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  244  engravings. 
739  pages.  8vo $7.50 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Soap 

and  Candles : 

Based  upon  the  most  Recent  Experiences  in  the  Practice  and  Science ; 
comprising  the  Chemistry,  Raw  Materials,  Machinery,  and  Utensils 
and  Various  Processes  of  Manufacture.  Edited  from  the  German  of 
Dr.  C.  DEITE,  A.  ENGELHARDT,  Dr.  C.  SCHAEDLER,  and  others. 
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BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Raw  Materials  and  the 
Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Alcohol,  and  the  Prepara- 
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engravings.     121110. $2.50 


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BRANNT— WAHL.— The  Techno- Chemical  Receipt  Book: 
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portant,  and  most  useful  discoveries  in  Chemical  Technology,  an<J 
their  Practical  Application  in  the  Arts  and  the  Industries.  Editeo 
chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs.  Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mier 
zinski,  Jacobsen,  Roller,  and  Heinzerling,  with  additions  by  WM.  T. 
BRANNT  and  WM.  H.  WAHL,  PH.  D.  Illustrated  by  78  engravings, 
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BROWN.— Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements. 
Embracing  all  those  which  are  most  important  in  Dynamics,  Hy- 
draulics, Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam -Engines,  Mill  and  othei 
Gearing,  Presses,  Horology  and  Miscellaneous  Machinery;  and  in- 
cluding many  movements  never  before  published,  and  several  of 
which  have  only  recently  come  into  use.  By  HENRY  T.  BROWN. 
I2nv> Ji.dc 

BUCKMASTER.— The  Elements  of  Mechanical  Physics  : 
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I2mo.  $1.50 

BULLOCK.— The  American  Cottage  Builder  : 
A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to  $20,000, 
for  Homes  for  the  People;  together  with  Warming,  Ventilation, 
Drainage,  Painting  and  Landscape  Gardening.  By  JOHN  BULLOCK, 
Architect  and  Editor  of  "The  Rudiments  of  Architectare  and 
Building,"  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  by  75  engravings.  8vo. 

BULLOCK. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Building: 
For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machinist-,  En- 
gineers and  Mechanics.  Edited  by  JOHN  BULLOCK,  author  of  "  The 
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BURGH.— Practical    Rules    for    the    Proportions   of     Modern 

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BYLES. — Sophisms    of     Free    Trade    and    Popular    Political 

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BOWMAN.— The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre  in  its  Relation 

to  the  Use  of  Wool  for  Technical  Purposes : 
Being  the  substance,  with  additions,  of  Five  Lectures,  delivered  at 
the  request  of  the  Council,  to  the  members  of  the  Bradford  Technical 
College,  and  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Coloiist>.  ]".y  1.  II.  ];,,\v. 
MAN,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L.  S.  Illustrated  by  32  engravings. 
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BYRNE.— Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and   Engi- 
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,  etc.     By  OLIVER  BYRNE.     Illustrated  by  18?  wood  en- 
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BYRl-Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civ 

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BYRNE.—  The  Practical  Metal-  Worker's  Assistant:  ' 

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and  Alloys;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel;  Hardening  and  Tempering- 
Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding;  Works  in  Sheet  Metal- 
the  Processes  Dependent  on  the  Ductility  of  the  Metals;  Soldering; 
and   the  most  Improved  Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- 
workers.    With  the  Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to 
Manufacturing  Processes;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from 
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revised  and  improved  edition,  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  con- 
taining The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron.     By  JOHN  PERCY, 
M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.     The  Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  and 
Improvements  in  Bessemer  Steel.     By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.     With  over  Six  Hundred  Engravings,  Illustrating  every 
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HYRNE.—  The  Practical  Model  Calculator: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechanic,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work,  Narai 
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CABINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE: 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of  Furniture. 
Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beautifully  Engraved  Plates, 
Oblong,  8vo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  $3.50 

CALLINGHAM.—  Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 

A  Complete  Practical  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.  By  JAMES 
CALLINGHAM.  i2mo  ........  $1.50 

CAMPIN.—  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Engineering: 
Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Work. 
shop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  Steam- 
Engines,  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Analysis  of  Iron  and  Iron 
Ores.  By  FRANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.  E.  To  which  are  added,  Observations 
on  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces 
used  for  Smoke  Prevention  ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R. 
ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.,  and  JOHN  BOURNE.  Rules  for  Calculating  th« 
Change  Wheels  for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  Wheel- 
cutting  Machine.  By  J.  LA  NICCA.  Management  of  Steel,  Includ- 
ing Forging,  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking  and 
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CAREY.— A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 

By  DR.  \\'M.  KI.DKR.    With  a  portrait.     8vo.,  cloth         .         .        75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey : 

Harmony  of  Interests  :  Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Commer- 
cial. 8vo.  ...  .  51.50 
Manual  of  Social  Science.  Condensed  from  Carey's  "  Principle* 
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Past,  Present  and  Future.     8vo {2.50 

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CLARK. — Tramways,  their  Construction  and  Working: 

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power, steam,  heated  water  and  compressed  air;  a  description  of  thp 
varieties  of  Rolling  stock,  and  ample  details  of  cost  and  working  ex- 
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COLBURN.— The  Locomotive  Engine  : 

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Capabilities,  and  Practical  Ol»ervations  on  its  Construction  and  Man- 
agement. By  ZERAH  COLBURN.  Illustrated.  121110.  .  $1.00 

COLLENS.— The  Eden  of  Labor;  or,  the  Christian  Utopia. 
By  T.  WHARTON  COLLENS,  author  of  "  Humanics,"   «•  The  History 
of  Charity,"  etc.     I2mo.     Paper  cover,  $1.00;  Cloth          .         $1.25 

COOLEY.— A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery: 

Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet  Articles. 
With  a  Comprehensive  Collection  of  Formulae.  By  ARNOLD  J. 
COOLEY.  I2mo 51.50 

COOPER.— A   Treatise  on  the  use  of  Belting  for  the  Trans- 
mission of  Power. 

With  numerous  illustrations  of  approved  and  actual  methods  of  ar- 
ranging Main  Driving  and  Quarter  Twist  Belts,  and  of  Belt  Fasten- 
ings. Examples  and  Rules  in  great  number  for  exhibiting  and  cal- 
culating the  size  and  driving  power  of  Belts.  Plain,  Particular  and 
Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment,  Care  ami  Management  of 
Belts.  Descriptions  of  many  varieties  of  Beltings,  together  with 
chapters  on  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Ropes;  by  Iron  and 
Wood  Frictional  Gearing ;  on  the  Strength  of  Belting  Leather ;  and 
on  the  Experimental  Investigations  of  Morin,  Briggs,  and  oth 
JOHN  II.  COOI-KR,  M.  E.  8vo $3.50 

CRAIK.— The  Practical  American  Millwright  and  Miller. 

By  DAVID  CRAIK,  Millwright.  Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  en- 
gravings and  two  folding  plates.  8vo 55-OO 


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CRISTIANI.—  A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles  : 
With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.     By  R.  S.  CRIS- 
TIANI, Chemist.     Author  of  "  Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts."     Illus- 
trated by  176  engravings.     581  pages,  8vo.         .         .         .         $7.50 

CRISTIANI.—  Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts: 

A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  a  History  of 
Perfumes  from  the  remotest  ages  to  the  present  time.  A  complete 
detailed  description  of  the  various  Materials  and  Apparatus  used  in 

•  the  Perfumer's  Art,  with  thorough  Practical  Instruction  and  careful 
Formulae,  and  advice  for  the  fabrication  of  all  known  preparations  of 
the  day,  including  Essences,  Tinctures,  Extracts,  Spirits,  Waters, 
Vinegars,  Pomades,  Powders,  Paints,  Oils,  Emulsions,  Cosmetics, 
Infusions,  Pastilles,  Tooth  Powders  and  Washes,  Cachous,  Hair  Dyes, 
Sachets,  Essential  Oils,  Flavoring  Extracts,  etc.  ;  and  full  details  for 
making  and  manipulating  Fancy  Toilet  Soaps,  Shaving  Creams,  etc., 
by  new  and  improved  methods.  With  an  Appendix  giving  hints  and 
advice  for  making  and  fermenting  Domestic  Wines,  Cordials,  Liquors, 
Candies,  Jellies,  Syrups,  Colors,  etc.,  and  for  Perfuming  and  Flavor- 
ing Segars,  Snuff  and  Tobacco,  and  Miscellaneous  Receipts  for 
various  useful  Analogous  Articles.  By  R.  S.  CRISTIANI,  Con- 
sulting Chemist  and  Perfumer,  Philadelphia.  8vo.  .  .  IS-OO 

CUPPER.—  The  Universal  Stair-Builder  : 

Being  a  new  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Stair-Cases  and  Hand- 
Rails;  showing  Plans  of  the  various  forms  of  Stairs,  method  of 
Placing  the  Risers  in  the  Cylinders,  general  method  of  describing 
the  Face  Moulds  for  a  Hand-Rail,  and  an  expeditious  method  of 
Squaring  the  Rail.  Useful  also  to  Stonemasons  constructing  Stone 
Stairs  and  Hand-Rails  ;  with  a  new  method  of  Sawing  the  Twist 
Part  of  any  Hand-Rail  square  from  the  face  of  the  plank,  and  to  a 
parallel  width.  Also,  a  new  method  of  forming  the  Easings  of  the 
Rail  by  a  gauge  ;  preceded  by  some  necessary  Problems  in  Practical 
Geometry,  with  the  Sections  of  Prismatic  Solids.  Illustrated  by  29 
plates.  By  R.  A.  CUPPER,  Architect,  author  of  "The  Practical 
Stair-Builder's  Guide."  Third  Edition.  Large  410. 

DAVIDSON.—  A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting,  Grain- 

ing, Marbling,  and  Sign-  Writing  : 

Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Painting  in 
Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and  Practice  of  Sign- 
Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  a  Course  of  Elementary 
Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers,  etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  With  nine  colored  illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles, 
and  numerous  wood  engravings.  By  ELLIS  A.  DAVIDSON.  I2mo. 


DAVIES.—  A   Treatise   on    Earthy  and   Other   Minerals   and 

Mining  : 

By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.     Illustrated  by 
76  Engravings.     I2mo  ........        #5-°° 


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DAVIES.— A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining: 
By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of  Mines, 
Quarries  and  Collieries.    Illustrated  by  148  engravings  of  Geological 
Formations,    Mining   Operations   and   Machinery,   drawn    from    thft 
practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world.    2d  Edition,  1 2mo.,  450  pages  $5.00 

DAVIES.— A  Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying: 
Scientific,  Practical  and  Commercial.     By   I).  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S., 
Mining   Engineer,  etc.     With    numerous   illustrations   and    folding 
plates.     I2mo $2.50 

DAVIS.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Bricks, 

Tiles,  Terra-Cotta,  etc. : 

Including  Common,  Pressed,  Ornamentally  Shaped,  and  Enamelled 
Bricks,  Drain-Tiles,  Straight  and  Curved  Sewer-I*ipes,  Fire-i  lays, 
Fire-Bricks,  Terra-Cotta,  Roofing-Tiles,  Flooring-Tiles,  Art-Tiles, 
Mosaic  Plates,  and  Imitation  of  Intarsia  or  Inlaid  Surfaces;  com- 
prising every  important  Product  of  Clay  employed  in  Architecture, 
Engineering,  the  Blast-Furnace,  for  Retorts,  etc.,  with  a  History  and 
the  Actual  Processes  in  Handling,  Disintegrating,  Tempering,  and 
Moulding  the  Clay  into  Sha|>e,  Drying  Naturally  and  Artificially, 
Setting  and  Burning,  Enamelling  in  Polychrome  Colors,  Composition 
and  Application  of  Glazes,  etc.;  including  Full  Detailed  Descriptions 
of  the  most  modern  Machines,  Tools,  Kilns,  and  Kiln-Roofs  used. 
By  CHARLES  THOMAS  DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  228  Engravings  and 
6  Plates.  8vo.,  472  pages 55.00 

DAVIS.— The  Manufacture  of  Leather: 

Being  a  description  of  all  of  the  Processes  for  the  Tanning,  Tawing, 
Currying,  Finishing  and  Dyeing  of  every  kind  of  Leather ;  including 
the  various  Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their 
Values;  the  Tools,  Machines,  and  all  Details  of  Importance  con- 
nected with  an  Intelligent  and  Profitable  Prosecution  of  the  Art,  with 
Special  Reference  to  the  Best  American  Practice.  To  which  are 
added  Complete  Lists  of  all  American  Patents  for  Materials,  Pro- 
cesses, Tools,  and  Machines  for  Tanning,  Currying,  etc.  By  CIIAKI.I.S 
THOMAS  DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  302  engravings  and  12  Samples  of 
Dyed  Leathers.  One  vol.,  8vo.,  824  pages  .  .  .  $10.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Raw  Materials  and  Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine,  Gelatine 
Veneers  and  Foils,  Isinglass,  Cements,  Pastes,  Mucilages, 
etc.: 

Eased  upon  Actual  Experience.  By  F.  DAWIDOWSKY,  Technical 
Chemist.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  extensive  additions, 
including  a  description  of  the  most  Recent  American  1'runssr-,  by 
WII.UAM  T.  BRANNT,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College 
of  Eldena,  Prussia.  35  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

DE  GRAFF. — The  Geometrical  Stair-Builders'  Guide : 

Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all  its 
necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  twenty-two  Steel 
Engravings;  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  principles 
of  Practical  Geometry.  By  SIMON  DE  GRAFF,  Architect.  410. 


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DE  KONINCK— DIETZ.— A    Practical   Manual   of   Chemical 
Analysis  and  Assaying : 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  to  Cast  Iron, 
Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce.  By  L.  L.  DE 
KONINCK,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  DIETZ,  Engineer.  Edited  with  Notes,  by 
ROBERT  MALLET,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  etc.  American 
Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an  Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A. 
FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  lamo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

DUNCAN.— Practical  Surveyor's  Guide:  ' 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  of  com' 
mon  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher. 
By  ANDREW  DUNCAN.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 

DUPLAIS. — A  Treatise  on  the  'Manufacture  and  Distillation 

of  Alcoholic  Liquors : 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to  Alcohol 
from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grnin,  Rice,  Potatoes,  Sorghum,  Aspho- 
del, Fruits,  etc.;  with  the  Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Brandy, 
Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe,  etc.,  the  Preparntion  of  Aro- 
matic Waters,  Volatile  Oils  or  Essences,  Sugars,  Syrups,  Aromatic 
Tinctures,  Liqueurs,  Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the 
Ageing  of  Brandy  and  the  improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious 
Directions  and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors, 
etc.,  etc.  Translated  and  Edited  from  the  French  of  MM.  DUPLAIS, 
Aine  et  Jeune.  By  M.  McKENNlE,  M.  D.  To  which  are  added  the 
United  States  Internal  Revenue  Regulations  for  the  Assessment  and 
Collection  of  Taxes  on  Distilled  Spirits.  Illustrated  by  fourteen 
folding  plates  and  several  wood  engravings.  743  pp.  8vo.  $1000 

PUSSAUCE.— A   General    Treatise   on   the   Manufacture   of 

Vinegar: 

Theoretical  and  Practical.  Comprising  the  various  Methods,  by  the 
Slow  and  the  Quick  Processes,  with  Alcohol*  Wine,  Grain,  Malt, 
Cider,  Molasses,  and  Beets;  as  well  as  the  Fabrication  of  Wood 
Vinegar,  etc.,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  DUSSAUCE.  8vo.  .  $5  °0 

DUSSAUCE.— Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Matches, 

Gun  Cotton,  and  Fulminating  Powder. 
By  Professor  H.  DUSSAUCE.     I2mo $3  °° 

DYER  AND  COLOR-MAKER'S  COMPANION: 

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Preparing,  Washing-off,  and  Finishing  the  Goods.  I2mo.  _  ffl  25 

EDWARDS.— A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam-Engine, 
For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Practical 
Work  for  Practical  Men.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS,  Mechanical  Engi- 
neer Illustrated  by  sixty-three  Engravings,  including  examples  of 
the  most  modern  Engines.  Third  edition,  thoroughly  revised  with 
much  additional  matter.  1 2  mo.  414  pages  .  .  _  •  $>2  °< 

EDWARDS.— Modern  American  Locomotive  Engines, 
Their  Design,  Construction  and  Management.     By  EMORY  EDWARDS. 
Illustrated  I2mo *2  °° 


12         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers,  and 

Screw  Propellers, 

Their  Design  and  Construction.  Showing  the  Present  Practice  of 
the  most  Eminent  Engineers  and  Marine  Engine  Builders  in  the 
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EDWARDS.— The  Practical  Steam  Engine  sr's  Guide 

In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American  Stationary, 
Portable,  and  Steam  Fire- Engines,  Steam  Pumps,  Boilers,  Injectors, 
Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings,  Safety  Valves  ami  Steam 
Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  By 
EMORY  EDWARDS.  Illustrated  by  119  engravings.  420  pages, 
lamo $2  50 

ELDER.— Conversations  on  the  Principal  Subjects  of  Political 

Economy. 
By  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo $2  50 

ELDER. — Questions  of  the  Day, 

Economic  and  Social.     By  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo.     .        $3  oo 

ELDER.— Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 
BY  Dr.  WILLIAM  ELDER.  8vo.  cloth 75 

BRNI.— Mineralogy  Simplified. 

Easy  Methods  of  Determining  and  Classifying  Minerals,  including 
Ores,  by  means  of  the  Blowpipe,  and  by  Humid  Chemical  Analysis, 
based  on  Professor  von  Kobell's  Tables  for  the  Determination  of 
Minerals,  with  an  Introduction  t.»  Modern  ClumiMry.  l!y  Hi  NRY 
ERNI,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry.  Second  Edition,  rewritten, 
enlarged  and  improved.  121110.  ....  ^3  oo 

FAIRBAIRN.— The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machinery 

of  Transmission  • 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pullevs, 
Strength  and  Proportions  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shaits,  and  Engag- 
ing and  Disengaging  Gear.  By  SIR  WILLIAM  FAIRBAIRN,  Bait. 
C.  E.  Beautifully  Illustrated  by  over  150  wood-cuts.  In  one 
volume,  I2mo 12.50 

FITCH.— Bessemer  Steel, 

Ores  and  Methods,  New  Facts  and  Statistics  Relating  to  the  Types 
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employed,  and  the  Character  and  Availability  of  the  Ores  utili/ed  in 
the  Manufacture  of  Bessemer  Steel  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  St.,te>; 
together  with  opinions  and  excerpts  from  various  accepted  auihoiiiies. 
Compiled  and  arranged  by  THOMAS  W.  FITCH.  8vo.  .  $3  oo 

fLEM  ING.— Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America. 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Pro^ns-,  and  Success.  Valuable  Statistics 
as  to  Grades,  Curves,  Weight  of  Rail,  Locomotives,  Cars,  e'c.  By 
HOWARD  FLKMINC.  Illustrated,  8vo $l  50 

FORSYTH.— Book  of   Designs  for  Headstones,   Mural,   and 

other  Monuments : 

Containing  78  Designs.  By  JAMES  FoRSYTH.  With  an  Introduction 
by  CHARLES  BOUTELL,  M.  A.  4  to.,  cloth  .  .  -  15  oo 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          13 

FRANKEL— HUTTER.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu- 
facture of  Starch,  Glucose,  Starch-Sugar,  and  Dextrine  : 
Based  on  the  German  of  LADISLAUS  VON  WAGNER,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  High  School,  Buda-Pest,  Hungary,  and  other 
authorities.  By  JULIUS  FRANKKL,  Graduate  of  the  Polytechnic 
School  of  Hanover.  Edited  by  ROBERT  HUTTER,  Chemist,  Practicpli 
Manufacturer  of  Starch-Sugar.  Illustrated  by  58  engravings,  cover- 
ing every  branch  of  the  subject,  including  examples  of  the  most 
Recent  and  Best  American  Machinery.  8vo.,  344  pp.  .  $3.50 

GEE.— The  Goldsmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Gold, 
including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Coloring,  Col- 
lecting, and  Refining;  the  Processes  of  Manipulation,  Recovery  of 
Waste;  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Gold;  with  a  New 
System  of  Mixing  its  Alloys;  Solders,  Enamels,  and  other  Useful 
Rules  and  Recipes.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.75 

GEE.— The  Silversmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Silver, 
including  the  different  modes  of  Refining  and  Melting  the  Metal ;  its 
Solders;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys;  Methods  of  Manipula- 
tion ;  Prevention  of  Waste ;  Instructions  for  Improving  and  Finishing 
the  Surface  of  the  Work ;  together  with  other  Useful  Information  and 
Memoranda.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE,  Jeweller.  Illustrated.  I2mo. 

*i-75 
GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS: 

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GREENWOOD.— Steel  and  Iron: 

Comprising  the  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Several  Methods  Pur- 
sued in  their  Manufacture,  and  of  their  Treatment  in  the  Rolling- 
Mills,  the  Forge,  and  the  Foundry.  By  WILLIAM  HENRY  GREEN- 
WOOD, F.  C.  S.  Asso.  M.  I.  C.  E.,  M.  I.  M.  E.,  Associate  of  the  Royal 
School  of  Mines.  With  97  Diagrams,  536  pages.  I2mo.  .  $2.00 

GREGORY. — Mathematics  for  Practical  Men  : 

Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechanics,  and 
Civil  Engineers.  By  OLINTHUS  GREGORY.  8vo.,  plates  .  $3.00 

GRIER.— Rural  Hydraulics : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Rural   Household  Water  Supply.     Giving  a 

full  description  of  Springs  and  Wells,  of  Pumps  and  Hydraulic  Ram, 

.  with  Instructions  in  Cistern  Building,  Laying  of  Pipes,  etc.     By  W. 

W.  GRIER.     Illustrated  8vo 75 

GRIMSH AW.— Modern  Milling: 

Being  the  substance  of  two  addresses  delivered  by  request,  at  the 
Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  January  igth  and  January  27th, 
1881.  By  ROBERT  GRIMSHAW,  Ph.  D.  Edited  from  the  Phono- 
graphic Reports.  With  28  Illustrations.  8vo.  •  .  .  '  .  J.I.OO 

GRIMSHAW.— Saws : 

The  History,  Development,  Action,  Classification,  and  Comparison 
•"  ^AWS  of  all  kinds.  With  Copious  Appendices.  Giving  the  details 


14         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

of  Manufacture,  Filing,  Setting,  Gumming,  etc.  Care  and  Use  of 
Saws;  Tables  of  Gauges;  Capacities  of  Saw-Mills;  List  of  Saw- 
Patents,  and  other  valuable  information.  By  ROBERT  GRIMSMAW. 
Second  and  greatly  enlarged  edition,  with  Supplement,  and  354  Illus- 
trations. Quarto $4-°° 

GRIMSHAW. — A  Supplement  to  Grimshaw  on  Saws: 
"    Containing  additional  practical  matter,  more  especially  relating  to  the 
Forms  of  Saw-Teeth,  for  special  material  and  conditions,  and  to  the 
Behavior  of  Saws  under  particular  conditions.    120  Illustrations.    By 

ROBERT  GRIMSHAW.     Quarto £2.00 

GRISWOLD.— Railroad  Engineer's  Pocket  Companion  for  the 

Field : 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and  Angles, 
Tangential  Distances  and  Angles,  and  all  Necessary  Tables  for  En- 
gineers; also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from  Preliminary  Survey  to  the 
Construction  of  Railroads,  intended  Expressly  for  the  Young  En- 
gineer, together  with  Numerous  Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.  By 

W.  GRlbWOLU.       I2m<).,  tucks $1-7$ 

GRUNER.— Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena: 

By  M.  L.  GRUNER,  1'resiclent  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines  o5 
France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines. 
Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an  Appendix,  by  L.  D. 
B.  GORDON,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.  8vo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

GUETTIER.— Metallic  Alloys: 

Being  a  Practical  Guide  to  their  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties, 
their  Preparation,  Composition,  and  Uses.  Translated  from  the 
French  of  A.  GUETTIER,  Engineer  and  Director  of  Founderies, 
author  of  "  I,a  Fouderie  en  France,"  etc.,  etc.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  121110.  .....  $3.00 

HASERICK.— The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Cotton, 

and  Linen, 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery  and 
Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and  Practice.  By 
E.  C.  HASERICK.  Illustrated  by  323  Dyed  Patterns  of  the  Yarns 
or  Fabrics.  8vo $25. of 

HATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture.  By  a  Practical  Hatter. 
Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo.  .  .  {1.25 

HENRY.— The  Early  and  Later  History  of  Petroleum  : 

With  Authentic  Facts  in  regard  to  its  Development  in  Western  Penn- 
sylvania. With  Sketches  of  the  Pioneer  and  Prominent  Operators, 
together  with  the  Refining  Capacity  of  the  United  States.  By  J.  T. 
HENRY.  Illustrated  8vo. 

HOFFER.— A    Practical   Treatise   on   Caoutchouc  and   Gutta 

Percha, 

Comprising  the  Properties  of  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  manner  of 
Mixing  and  Working  them ;  with  the  Fabrication  of  Vulcanized  and 
Hard  Rubbers,  Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Peicha  Compositions,  Water. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.         15 

proof  Substances,  Elastic  Tissues,  the  Utilization  of  Waste,  etc.,  etc. 
From  the  German  of  RAIMUND  HOFFER  By  W  T  ERANNT' 

Illustrated  1 2mo \         jj     " 

HOFMANN.— A  Practical   Treatise  on  the   Manufacture  of 

Paper  in  all  its  Branches  : 

By  CARL  HOFMANN,  Late  Superintendent  of  Paper-Mills  in  Germany 
and  the  United  States ;  recently  Manager  of  the  "  Public  Ledger " 
Paper  Mills,  near  Elkton,  Maryland.  Illustrated  by  no  wood  en- 
gravings, and  five  large  Folding  Plates.  4to.,  cloth;  about  400 

HUGHES. — American  Miller  and  Millwright's  Assistant: 

By  WILLIAM  CARTER  HUGHES,    ramo $1.50 

HULME.— Worked  Examination  Questions  in  Plane  Geomet- 
rical Drawing  : 

For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich;  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst;  the  Indian  Civil  En- 
gineering  College,  Cooper's  Hill ;  Indian  Public  Works  and  Tele- 
graph Departments ;  Royal  Marine  Li»ht  Infantry;  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc.  By  F.  EDWARD  HULME,  F.  L. 
S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Marlborough  College.  Illustrated  by  300 
examples.  Small  quarto  .  $17$ 

JER VIS.— Railroad  Property: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property  ;  as  well  as  Railway  Managers,  Offi- 
cers, and  Agents.  By  JOHN  B.  JERVIS,  late  Civil  Engineer  of  the 
Hudson  River  Railroad,  Croton  Aqueduct,  etc.  i2mo.,  cloth  $2.00 

KEENE.— A  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Gauging: 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners,  to  which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  Distilla« 
tion,  describing  the  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom-House  for 
ascertaining  the  Strength  of  Wines.  By  JAMES  B.  KEENE,  of  H.  M. 
Customs.  8vo $1.25 

KELLEY. — Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial  and 

Financial  Questions : 
By  HON.  WILLIAM  D.  KELLEY,  M.  C.     544  pages,  8vo.  .        $3.00 

KELLOGG.— A  New  Monetary  System  : 

The  only  means  of  Securing  the  respective  Rights  of  Labor  and 
Property,  and  of  Protecting  the  Public  from  Financial  Revulsions. 
By  EDWARD  KELLOGG.  Revised  from  his  work  on  "Labor  and 
other  Capital."  With  numerous  additions  from  his  mnnuscript. 
Edited  by  MARY  KELLOGG  PUTNAM.  Fifth  edition.  To  which  is 
added  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  the  Author.  One  volume,  I2mo. 

Paper  cover #l.oo 

Bound  in  cloth I-5° 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's  Hand-Book : 

Being  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking  Apart, 
Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the  English  Lever  and 
other  Foreign  Watches,  and  all  American  Watches.  By  F.  KEMLO, 
Practical  W  '~urr"ker.  With  Illustrations.  I2mo.  .  #1.25 


16  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

KENTISH.— A  Treatise  on  a  Box  of  Instruments, 

And  the  Slide  Rule ;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Loga 
rithms,  including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measuring  of  Tim. 
ber,  Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances.  By  THOMAS 
KENTISH.  In  one  volume.  I2mo.  ....  $i.-$ 

KERL.— The  Assayer's  Manual: 

An  Abridged  Treatise  on  the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores,  and 
Furnace  and  other  Artificial  Products.  By  BRUNO  KERL,  Professor 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines ;  Member  of  the  Royal  Technical 
Commission  for  the  Industries,  and  r.f  the  Imperial  Patent-Office, 
Berlin.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRAN  NT, 
Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College  of  Eldena,  Pru^i.i. 
Edited  by  WILLIAM  H.  WAUL,  Ph.  D.,  Secretary  of  the  Franklin 
Institute,  Philadelphia.  Illustrated  by  sixty-five  engravings.  8vo. 

$3.00 

KINGZETT.— The   History,  Products,  and   Processes  of  the 

Alkali  Trade  : 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.  By  CHARLES  THOMAS 
KINCZKTT,  Consulting  Chemist.  With  23  illustrations.  8vo.  $2.50 

KINSLEY. — Self-Instructor  on  Lumber  Surveying: 
For  the  Use  of  Lumber   Manufacturers,  Surveyors,  and   Teachers. 
By  CHARLES  KINSLEY,  Practical  Surveyor  and  Teacher  of  Surveying. 

I  2I1H  i $2.OQ 

KIRK.— The  Founding  of  Metals: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Melting  of  Iron,  with  a  Description  of  the 
Founding  of  Alloys;  also,  of  all  the  Metals  and  Mineral  Substances 
used  in  the  Art  of  Founding.  Collected  from  original  sources.  By 
EDWARD  KIRK,  Practical  Foundryman  and  Chemist.  Illustrated. 
Third  edition.  8vo $2.50 

KITTREDGE.— The    Compendium    of    Architectural    Sheet- 
Metal  Work : 

Profusely  Illustrated.  Embracing  Rules  and  Directions  for  Estimates, 
Items  of  Cost,  Nomenclature,  Tables  of  Brackets,  Modillions,  Den- 
tals, Trusses,  Stop-Blocks,  Frieze  Pieces,  etc.  Architect's  Specifica- 
tion, Tables  of  Tin- Roofing,  Galvani/.ed  Iron,  etc.,  etc.  To  which  is 
added  the  Exemplar  of  Architectural  Sheet-Metal  Work,  containing 
details  of  the  Centennial  Buildings,  and  other  important  Sheet-Metal 
Work,  Designs  and  Prices  of  Architectural  Ornaments,  as  manufac- 
tured for  the  Trade  by  the  Kittredge  Cornice  and  Ornnment  Com- 
pany, and  a  Catalogue  of  Cornices,  Window-Caps,  Mouldings, etc.,  as 
manufactured  by  the  Kiltredge  Cornice  and  Ornament  Company. 
The  whole  supplemented  by  a  full  Index  and  Table  of  Contents.  By 
A.  O.  KITTREDGE.  8vo.,  565  pages  .... 

LANDRIN.— A  Treatise  on  Steel: 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Working, 
and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  LANDRIN,  JR.,  Civil  Engineer.  Translated 
from  the  French,  with  Notes,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  Pro- 
cesses for  Manufacturing  Steel,  from  the  Report  of  Abrnm  S.  H«witt 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  17 

United  States  Commissioner  to  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867. 

I2mo $3.00 

UARDEN.— A  School  Course  on  Heat: 

By  W.  LARDEN,  M.  A.  321  pp.  i2mo $2.00 

LARDNER.— The  Steam-Engine: 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners.    By  DR.  LARDNER.    Illustrated.    I2mo. 

LARKIN.— The  Practical  Brass  and  Iron  Founder's  Guide: 
A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals  and 
their  Alloys,  etc. ;  to  which  are  added  Recent  Improvements  in  the 
Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Process,  etc.,  etc.  By 
JAMES  LARKIN,  late  Conductor  of  the  Brass  Foundry  Department  ii; 
Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn  Works,  Philadelphia.  Fifth  edition, 
revised,  with  extensive  additions.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.25 

LEROUX.— A    Practical     Treatise    on    the    Manufacture   of 

Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns  : 

Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calculations  applied 
to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring  Wools;  the  English 
and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Drawing,  and  Spinning  Worsteds, 
and  Manufacturing  Carded  Yarns.  Translated  from  the  French  of 
CHARLES  LEROUX,  Mechanical  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  a 
Spinning-Mill,  by  HORATIO  PAINE,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  twelve  large  Plates.  To  which 
is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the 
International  Jury,  and  of  the  Artisans  selected  by  the  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  London,  on  Woolen 
and  Worsted  Machinery  and  Fabrics,  as  exhibited  in  the  Paris  Uni- 
versal Exposition,  1867.  8vo.  .  .  .  -.  •  i  $5-OO 

LEFFEL. — The  Construction  of  Mill-Dams : 
Comprising  also  the  Building  of  Race  and  Reservoir  Embankments 
and   Head-Gates,  the   Measurement  of  Streams,  Gauging  of  Water 
Supply,  etc.     By  JAMES  LEFFEL  &  Co.    Illustrated  by  58  engravings. 
8vo #2.50 

LESLIE.— Complete  Cookery: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss  LESLIE. 
Sixtieth  thousand.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  addition  of  New 
Receipts.  In  I2mo.,  cloth #1-5° 

LIEBER.— Assayer's  Guide  : 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for  the 
Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for  the  Ores  of  all 
the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  and  Alloys,  and  of 
Coal,  etc.  By  OSCAR  M.  LIEBER.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 

LOVE.— The  Art  of  Dyeing,  Cleaning,  Scouring,  and  Finish- 
ing, on  the  Most  Approved  English  and  French  Methods : 
Being  Practical  Instructions  in  Dyeing  Silks,  Woolens,  and  Cottons, 
Feathers,  Chips,  Straw,  etc.  Scouring  and  Cleaning  Bed  and  Win- 
dow Curtains,  Carpets,  Rugs,  etc.  French  and  English  Cleaning, 
any  Color  or  Fabric  of  Silk,  Satin,  or  Damask.  By  THOMAS  LOVE, 
a  Working  Dyer  and  Scourer-  Second  American  Edition,  to  which 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


are  added  General  Instructions  for  the  use  of  Aniline  Colors.     8vo. 

343  pages          .....     '   •  $5.00 

LUKIN.—  Amongst  Machines: 

Embracing  Descriptions  of  the  various  Mechanical  Appliances  used 
in  the  Manufacture  of  Wood,  Metal,  and  other  Substances.    I2mo. 


f.UKIN.—  The  Boy  Engineers: 
What  They  Did,  and  How  They  Did  It.     With  30  plates.    l8mo. 

iM-75 

LUKIN.—  The  Yojing  Mechanic  : 

Practical  Carpentry.  Containing  Directions  for  the  Use  of  all  kinds 
of  Tools,  and  for  Construction  of  Steam-  Engines  and  Mechanical 
Models,  including  the  Art  of  Turning  in  Wood  and  Metal.  By  JOHN 
LUKIN,  Author  of  "The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses,"  etc.  Illustrated. 
I2rr.o.  .  .  .......  #1.75 

MAIN  and  BROWN.—  Questions  on  Subjects  Connected  with 

the  Marine  Steam  -Engine: 

And  Examination  Papers;  with  Hints  for  their  Solution.  By 
THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Royal  Naval  College, 
and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.  I2mo.,  cloth  .  $1.50 

MAIN  and  BROWN.—  The  Indicator  and  Dynamometer: 
With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-  Engine.     By  THOMAS 
J.  MAIN,   M.  A.  F.  R.,  Ass't    S.    Professor    Royal   Naval   College, 
Portsmouth,  and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer 
R.  N.,  attached  to  the  R.  N.  College.     Illustrated.     8vo.  .         #1.50 

MAIN  and  BROWN.—  The  Marine  Steam-Engine. 

By  THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  F.  R.  .-Wt  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at  the 
Royal  Naval  College,  Portsmouth,  and  THOM~AS  BROWN,  Assoc. 
Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer  R.  N.  Attached  to  the  Royal  Naval 
College.  With  numerous  illustrations.  8vo.  .  .  .  $5.00 

MARTIN.—  Screw-Cutting  Tables,  for  the  Use  of  Mechanical 

Engineers  : 

Showing  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  Wheels  for  Cutting  the  Threads 
of  Screws  of  any  Required  Pitch  ;  with  a  Table  for  Making  the  Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe  Thread  and  Taps.  By  W.  A.  MARTIN,  Engineer. 
«vo  ...........  50 

MICHELL.—  Mine  Drainage: 

Being  a  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Direct-Acting  Under- 
ground  Steam  Pumping  Machinery.  With  a  Description  of  a  large 
number  of  the  best  known  Engines,  their  General  Utility  and  the 
Special  Sphere  of  their  Action,  the  Mode  of  their  Application,  and 
their  Merits  compared  with  other  lumping  Machinery.  By  Si  i  TIIKX 
MICHELL.  Illustrated  by  137  engravings.  8vo.,  277  pages  .  $6.00 

MOLESWORTH.—  Pocket-Book    of    Useful     Formulae     and 

Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 
By  GUILFORD  L.  MOLESWORTH,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  Chief  Resident   Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway.     Full- 
bound  in  Pocket-book  form      ......        $1.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.         19 

MOORE.—  The  Universal  Assistant  and  the   Complete  Me. 

chanic  : 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations,  Receipts, 
Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms,  Legal  Items,  Etc., 
in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household-to  the  Manufactory.  By 
R.  MOORE.  Illustrated  by  500  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.50 

MORRIS.  —  Easy  Rules  for  the  Measurement  of  Earthworks  : 
By  means  of  the  Prismoidal  Formula.  Illustrated  with  Numerou« 
Wood-Cuts,  Problems,  and  Examples,  and  concluded  by  an  Exten- 
sive Table  for  finding  the  Solidity  in  cubic  yards  from  Mean  Areas. 
The  whole  being  adapted  for  convenient  use  by  Engineers,  Surveyors, 
Contractors,  and  others  needing  Correct  Measurements  of  Earthwork. 
By  ELWOOD  MORRIS,  C.  E.  8.vo  ......  $1.50 

MORTON.  —  The  System  of  Calculating  Diameter,  Circumfer* 

ence,  Area,  and  Squaring  the  Circle: 

Together  with  Interest  and  Miscellaneous  Tables,  and  other  informa- 
tion. By  JAMES  MORTON.  Second  Edition,  enlarged,  with  the 
Metric  System.  I2mo  ........  $i.oa 

NAPIER.—  Manual  of  Electro-Metallurgy: 

Including  the  Application  of  the  Art  to  Manufacturing  Processes. 
By  JAMES  NAPIER.  Fourth  American,  from  the  Fourth  London 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated  by  engravings.  8vo.  $I.$G 

NAPIER.  —  A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing. 

By  JAMES  NAPIER,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised  Edi- 
tion. Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the  Science, 
including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  Illus- 
trated. 8vo.  422  pages  .......  $5-°° 

NEVILLE.—  Hydraulic  Tables,  Coefficients,  and  Formulae,  for 
finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches, 
Weirs,  Pipes,  and  Rivers  : 

Third  Edition,  with  Additions,  consisting  of  New  Formulae  for  the 
Discharge  from  Tidal  and  Flood  Sluices  and  Siphons  ;  general  infor- 
mation on  Rainfall,  Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  Wa'.er 
Supply  for  Towns  and  Mill  Power.  By  JOHN  NEVILLE,  C.  E.  M  R. 
I  A.  ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland.  Thick 


I2ino  .......... 

NEWBERY.—  Gleanings     from     Ornamental     Art    of    every 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  1851  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In  a  series  of  loo 
exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  examples.  By 
ROBERT  NEWBERY.  410.  ....  •  $12.50 

NICHOLLS.  —The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler-Maker  and 

Engineer's  Reference  Book: 

Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers  of  Labor. 
Foremen  and  Working  Boiler-Makers  Iron,  Copper,  and  Tinsmiths, 


20         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam-using  Public,  and  for  the 
Use  of  Science  Schools  and  Classes.  By  SAMUEL  NICHOLLS.  Illus- 
trated by  sixteen  plates,  12010.  .  .  .  .  .  £2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Bookbinding : 

Containing  full  instructions  in  the  different  Branches  of  Forwarding, 
Gilding,  and  Finishing.  Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book-edges  and 
Piiper.  By  JAMES  B.  NICHOLSON.  Illustrated.  I2mo.,  cloth  $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The  Railway  Builder: 

A  Hand-Book  for  Estimating  the  Probable  Cost  of  American  Rail- 
way  Construction  and  Equipment.  By  WILLIAM  J.  NICOLLS,  Civil 
Engineer.  Illustrated,  full  Ixiund,  pocket-book  form  .  $2.00 

NORMANDY.— The  Commercial  Handbook  of  Chemical  An- 

alysis; 

Or  Practical  Instructions  for  the  Determination  of  the  Intrinsic  01 
Commercial  Value  of  Substances  used  in  Manufactures,  in  Trades, 
and  in  the  Arts.  By  A.  NORMANDY.  New  Edition,  Enlarged,  :md 
to  a  great  extent  rewritten.  By  HENRY  M.  NOAD,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 
thick  izmo $5.00 

NORRIS.— A  Handbook  for  Locomotive    Engineers  and  Ma- 
chinists : 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing  Loco- 
motives;  Manner  of  Setting  Valves;  Tallies  cf  Squares,  Cul» 
etc.,  etc.     By  SEPTIMUS  NORRIS,  M.  E.    New  edition.     Illustrated, 
I2mo $1.50 

NYSTROM.— A  New  Treatise  on  Elements  of  Mechanics  : 
Establishing  Strict  Precision  in  the   Meaning  of  Dynamical   Terms: 
accompanied  with  an  Appendix  on  Duodenal  Arithmetic  an«i    Me 
trology.     By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  C.  E.     Illustrated.     8vo.        $2.00 

NYSTROM. — On  Technological  Education  and  the  Construc- 
tion of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers : 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  late 
Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.  Second  edition,  revised,  with  addi- 
tional matter.  Illustrated  by  seven  engravings.  121110.  .  $1.50 

O'NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing: 
Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  SuUtances  ami  1'iocesses  in 
use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  ;  with  Practical 
Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By  CHARLES  O'NEILL,  Analy- 
tical Chemist.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and 
their  application  to  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  FESQUKT, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
lYinting,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  8vo., 
491  pages  .  $5.00 

ORTON. — Underground  Treasures-. 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  Determination 
of  all  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United  States.  By  JA.MKS 
ORTON,  A.M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Vassar  College, 
N.  Y.;Cor.  Mem.  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia, 
and  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  New  York ;  author  of  the 
"Andes  and  the  Amazon,"  etc.  A  New  Edition,  with  Additions. 
Illustrated £1.50 


.     HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.         21 

OSBORN.— The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel: 

Theoretical  and  Practical  in  all  its  Branches;  with  special  reference 
to  American  Materials  and  Processes.  By  H.  S.  O,HORN,  LL.  D., 
Professor  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  Lafayette  College'  Eastoii' 
Pennsylvania.  Illustrated  by  numerous  large  folding  plates  and 
wood-engravings.  8vo <g2,  oo 

OSBORN.— A  Practical  Manual  of  Minerals,  Mines  and  Min- 
ing: 

Comprising  the  Physical  Properties,  Geologic  Positions,  Local  Occur- 
rence and  Associations  of  the  Useful  Minerals;  their  Methods  of 
Chemical  Analysis  and  Assay:  together  with  Various  Systems  of 
Excavating  and  Timbering,  Brick  and  Masonry  Work,  during  Driv- 
ing, Lining,  Bracing  and  other  Operations,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  S. 
OSBORN,  LL.  D.,  Author  of  the  "  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel." 
Illustrated  by  1 7 1  engravings  from  original  drawings.  8vo  $4  ?o 

OVERMAN.— The  Manufacture  of  Steel : 

Containing  the  Practice  and  Principles  of  Working  and  Making  Steel. 
A  Handbook  for  Blacksmiths  and  Workers  in  Steel  and  Iron,  Wagon 
Makers,  Die  Sinkers,  Cutlers,  and  Manufacturers  of  Files  and  Hard- 
ware, of  Steel  and  Iron,  and  for  Men  of  Science  and  Art.  By 
FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  Mining  Engineer,  Author  of  the  "  Manu- 
facture of  Iron,"  etc.  A  new,  enlarged,  and  revised  Edition.  By 
A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.50 

OVERMAN.— The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide  : 
A  Treatise  on  Moulding  and  Founding  in  Green-sand,  Dry-sand,Loam, 
and  Cement ;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames,  Mill-gear,  Hollow- 
ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and  Statues;  Description  of  Moulds 
for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and  other  Metals ;  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur, 
Wax,  etc. ;  the  Construction  of  Melting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and 
Founding  of  Metals ;  the  Composition  of  Alloys  and  their  Nature, 
etc.,  etc.  By  FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  M.  E.  A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  added  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental  Moulding, 
Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chem- 
ist and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  44  engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.OO 

PAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION; 
Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  in  everything  relating  to  the  AnS 
of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  Glass-Staining,  Graining,  Marbling, 
Sign-Writing,  Gilding  on  Gla.ss,  and  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishing; 
Tests  for  the  Deteciion  of  Adulterations  in  Oils,  Colors,  etc.;  and  a 
Statement  of  the  Diseases  to  which  Painters  are  peculiarly  liable,  with 
the  Simplest  and  Best  Remedies.  Sixteenth  Edition.  Revised,  with 
an  Appendix.  Containing  Colors,  and  Coloring — Theoretical  ano 
Practical.  Comprising  descriptions  of  a  great  variety  of  Additional 
Pigments,  their  Qualities  and  Uses,  to  which  are  added,  Dryers,  and 
Modes  and  Oper.-tions  of  Painting,  etc.  Together  with  ^Chevreui's 
Principles  of  Harmony  and  Contrast  of  Colors.  I2mo.  Cloth  $1.50 

PALLETT.— The  Miller's,  Millwright's,  and  Engineer's  Guide. 
By  HENRY  PALLETT.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $3.00 


22         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

PERCY.— The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron. 
By  JOHN  PERCY,  M.D.,  F.  R.S.,   Lecturer   on   Metallurgy  at   the 
Royal    School  of   Mines,  and   to   The  Advance  Class   of  Artillery 
Officers  at   the    Royal    Artillery    Institution,  Woolwich ;  Author  of 
"  Metallurgy."  With  Illustrations.     8vo.,  paper       .         .         50  cts, 

PERKINS.— Gas  and  Ventilation  : 

Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.  With  Special  Relation 
to  Illuminating,  Heating,  and  Cooking  by  Gas.  Including  Scientific 
Helps  to  Engineer-students  and  others.  With  Illustrated  Diagrams. 
By  E.  E.  PERKINS.  I2mo.,  cloth $1.25 

>»ERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  New  Guide  to  the  Sheet-iron 

and  Boiler  Plate  Roller : 

Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and  Piles 
to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the  Sizes  of 
Bars  to  produce  Sheet-iron;  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar  Gauge 
in  decimals ;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Bar  or 
Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch;  the  Weight  per 
sheet,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet-iron  of  various 
dimensions  to  weigh  112  Ibs.  per  bundle;  and  the  conversion  of 
Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight  into  Short. 
Estimated  and  collected  by  G.  H.  PERKINS  and  J.  G.  STOWK.  #2.50 

POWELL-CHANCE-HARRIS.-The    Principles  of   Glass 

Making. 

By  HARRY  J.  POWELL,  B.  A.  Together  with  Treatises  on  Crown  and 
Sheet  Glass;  by  HENRY  CHANCE,  M.  A.  And  Plate  Glass,  l.v  II 
G.  HARRIS,  Asso.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated  iSmo.  .  11.50 

PROCTOR.— A  Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Tables  and  Formulae 

for  Marine  Engineers  : 

By  FRANK  I'K<KTI>K.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  lurar^-d. 
Full -bound  pocket-book  form $1.50 

REGNAULT.— Elements  of  Chemistry: 

By  M.  V.  REGNAULT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  FORREST 
BETTON,  M.  D.,  and  edited,  with  Notes,  by  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Mdier 
and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  WILLIAM  L.  FABER,  Metallurgist  and 
Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood-engravings.  Com- 
prising nearly  1,500  pages.  In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth  .  $7.50 

RICHARDS.— Aluminium  : 

Its  History,  Occurrence,  Properties,  Metallurgy  and  Applications, 
including  its  Alloys.  By  JOSEPH  W.  RICHARDS,  A.  C.,  Chemi-t  and 
Practical  Metallurgist,  Member  of  the  Deutsche  Chemische  Gesell- 
sch.ift.  Illustrated  by  16  engravings.  12  mo.  346  pages  $2  SO 

RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.— A  Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting : 
Comprising  the  Origin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors;  the 
Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials;  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Newest 
Processes  for  the  Preparation  of  every  description  of  Pigment,  and 
the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for  its  Use;  Dryers;  the 
Testing,  Application,  and  Qualities  of  Paints,  etc.,  elc.  Hy  MM. 
RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.  Revised  and  Edited  by  M. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          23 

F.  MALEPEYRE.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  Eighty  engravings.  In  one 
vol..  8vo.,  659  pages  .  .  .....  £;.5O 

ROPER.-A  Catechism  of  High-Pressure,  or  Non-Condensine 
Steam-Engines  : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Constructing,  and  Management  of  Steam- 
Engines  and  Steam  Boilers.  With  valuable  illustrations.  By  STE- 
PHEN ROPER,  Engineer.  Sixteenth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged 
l8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $200 

fcOPER.— Engineer's  Handy-Book: 

Containing  a  full  Explanation  of  the  Steam-Engine  Indicator,  and  its 
Use  and  Advantages  to  Engineers  and  Steam  Users.  With  Formulae 
for  Estimating  the  Power  of  all  Classes  of  Steam-Engines ;  also, 
Facts,  Figures,  Questions,  and  Tables  for  Engineers  who  wish  to 
qualify  themselves  for  the  United  States  Navy,  the  Revenue  Service, 
the  Mercantile  Marine,  or  to  take  charge  of  the  Better  Class  of  Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines.  Sixth  edition.  i6mo..  690  pages,  tucks, 
gilt  edge #3.5o 

ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Construction,  Running,  and  Management 
of  Lane4  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.  With  frustrations.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Sixth  edition.  I2mo.,tx-cks,  gilt  edge. 

$3.50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive  : 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the  Construc- 
tion, Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives.  By  STEPHEN 
ROPER.  Eleventh  edition.  i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  .  $2.50 

ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines. 

With  illustrations.  By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Fourth  edition, 
I2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $3.50 

ROPER. — Questions  and  Answers  for  Engineers. 

This  little  book  contains  all  the  Questions  that  Engineers  will  be 
asked  when  undergoing  an  Examination  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
Licenses,  and  they  are  so  plain  that  any  Engineer  or  Fireman  of  or 
dinary  intelligence  may  commit  them  to  memory  in  a  short  time.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Third  edition  .  .  .  $3.00 

ROPER.— Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler. 
By  STEPHEN   ROPER,  Engineer.     Eighth  edition,  with   illustrations. 
i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $2.00 

ROSE.— The  Complete  Practical  Machinist : 

Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps  and 
Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of  Tools, 
Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  Work,  etc.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  Illus- 
trated by  356  engravings.  Thirteenth  edition,  thoroughly  revised 
and  in  great  part  rewritten.  In  one  vol.,  I2mo.,  439  pages  $2.50 

ROSE.— Mechanical  Drawing  Self- Taught: 
Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  Drawing 
Instruments,  Elementary  Instruction  in  Practical  Mechanical  Draw- 


24         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

ing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Mechanism,  including  Screw  Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical 
Motions,  Engines  and  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  330  engravings.  8vo  ,  313  pages  ....  $4.00 

ROSE.— The  Slide- Valve  Practically  Explained  : 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of  the 
operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement,  and  illustrat- 
ing the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions  by  examples  care- 
fully selected  from  the  most  recent  and  successful  practice.  Uy 
JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  35  engravings  .  $l.oo 

ROSS. — The  Blowpipe  in  Chemistry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology: 
Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many  Work- 
ing Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus.  By  LIKUT.- 
COLONEL  W.  A.  Ross,  R.  A.,  F.  G.  S.  With  120  Illustrations. 
I2mo |l.5O 

SHAW.— Civil  Architecture: 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building,  con- 
taining the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  EDWARD  MIAW, 
Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Architecture,  etc. 
By  THOMAS  W.  SILI.OWAY  and  GEORGE  M.  HARDING,  Architects. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper. 
Eleventh  edition.  4to.  .......  $10.00 

SHUNK.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Loca- 
tion, for  Young  Engineers. 
By  W.  F.  SHUNK,  C.  E.     I2ino.    Full  bound  pocket-book  form  52.00 

SLATER.— The  Manual  of  Colors  and  Dye  Wares. 
By  J.  W.  SLATER,     izmo 13-75 

SLOAN. — American  Houses: 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
26  colored  engravings,  with  descriptive  references.  By  SAMTKL 
SLOAN,  Architect.  8vo.  .  .  .  .  .  31.50 

SLOAN.— Homestead  Architecture . 

Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villa^,  Cottages,  and  Farm-houses,  with 
Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gardening,  Furniture,  etc., 
etc.  Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200  engravings.  By  SAMUEL  SLOAN, 
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SLOANE.— Home  Experiments  in  Science. 
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SMEATON.— Builder's  Pocket-Companion : 

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SMITH.— A  Manual  of  Political  Economy. 
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Index.     I2mo $1.25 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.         25 

SMITH.— Parks  and  Pleasure  -  Grounds : 

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Gardens  By  CHARLES  H.  J.  SMITH,  Landscape  Gardener  and 
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SMITH.— The  Dyer's  Instructor: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cotton, 
Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods;  containing  nearly  800 
Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Padding;  and 
the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs,  and  the 
various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of  such  work 
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SMYTH.— A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Coal  and  CoaUMining 
By  WARRINGTON  W.  SMYTH,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.,  President  R.  G.  S. 
of  Cornwall.     Fifth  edition,  revised  and  corrected.     With  numer- 
ous illustrations.     I2mo.  $1-75 

SNIVELY.— A  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Perfumes  and 

Kindred  Toilet  Articles. 

By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.,  Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry  in 
the  Tennessee  College  of  Pharmacy.  8vo.  .  .  .  $3.00 

SNIVELY.— Tables  for  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical  Anal- 
ysis. 
By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.    8vo.        .        .        .  $1.00 

SNIVELY.— The  Elements  of  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical 

Analysis : 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.    By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.    i6mo. 

$2.00 

STEWART.— The  American  System  : 

Speeches  on  the  Tariff  Question,  and  on  Internal  Improvements, 
principally  delivered  in  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States.  By  ANDREW  STEWART,  late  M.  C.  from  Pennsylvania. 
With  a  Portrait,  and  a  Biographical  Sketch.  8vo.  .  .  $3.00 

STOKES. — The  Cabinet  Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Companion: 
Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable  to  Cabinet  Work; 
Veneering,  Inlaying,  and  Buhl- Work;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Stain- 
ing Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lacker- 
ing, Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to  make  French  Polish,  Glues, 
Cements,  and  Compositions;  with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  work- 
men generally.  By  J.  STOKES.  Illustrated.  A  New  Edition,  with 
an  Appendix  upon  French  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing, 
etc.,  etc.  I2mo $1.25 

STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS: 
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Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Testing 
Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.  By  Officers 
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SULLIVAN.— Protection  to  Native  Industry. 

By  Sir  EDWARD  SULLIVAN,  Baronet,  author  of  "  Ten  Chapters  on 
Social  Reforms."  8vo £i-5° 


«6         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

SYME.— Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science. 
By  DAVID  SYME.     I2mo.          .        .  ...        $2.00 

TABLES      SHOWING     THE     WEIGHT      OF     ROUND, 

SQUARE,  AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC., 
By  Measurement.     Clolh  ......  63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics  of  Coal : 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commercial 
Distribution  and  Amount  of  Production  and  Consumption  on  the 
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facture. By  R.  C.  TAYLOR.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S.  S.  HA LDE- 
MAN.  Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engravings.  8vo., 
cloth $10.00 

TEMPLETON.— The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and  the 

Steam-Engine: 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for  the  Use  of 
Engineers,  Students,  and  others.  By  WILLIAM  TEMPLETON,  En- 

S'neer.  I2mo. $1.25 
AUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation  of 
Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing.  Elab- 
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at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural  Institute,  Modi  ing, 
near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Thoroughly  and  elaborately  edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and 
according  to  the  latest  and  mo-t  Scientific  IVactice,  by  A.  SCHWARZ 
and  DR.  A.  II.  BAUER.  Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.  8vo.,  8is 
P-i^es Jio.ob 

THOMAS.— The  Modern  Practice  of  Photography: 

ByR.  \V.Tii..M\s.  K.C.S.    8vo 75 

THOMPSON.— Political  Economy.     With  Especial  Reference 

to  the  Industrial  History  of  Nations  : 

By  ROBERT  E.  THOMPSON,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Social  Science  in  the 
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THOMSON.— Freight  Charges  Calculator: 

By  ANDREW  THOMSON,  Freight  Agent.     24010.         .         .         $1.25 

TURNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric  Turn- 
i:ig;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instruments;  and 
Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and 
Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instructions  for  working  them 
I2mo $1.25 

TURNING  :   Specimens  of   Fancy  Turning   Executed  on   the 

Hand  or  Foot-Lathe : 

With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cutting 
Frame.  By  an  Amateur.  Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Photographs. 
4to $3.00 

URBIN— BRULL.— A  Practical  Guide  for  Puddling  Iron  and 

Steel. 
By  ED.  URBIN,  Engineer  of  Arts  and  Manufactures.     A  Prize  Essay, 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          27 

read  before  the  Association  of  Engineers,  Graduate  of  the  School  of 
Mines,  of  Liege,  Belgium,  at  the  Meeting  of  1865-6.  To  which  is 
added  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  RESISTING  PROPERTIES  OF  IRON  AND 
STEEL.  By  A.  BRULL.  Translated  from  the  French  by  A.  A.  FES- 
QUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  8vo.  .  .  .  $i  oo 

tfAILE.— Galvanized-Iron  Cornice-Worker's  Manual: 
Containing  Instructions  in  Laying  out  the  Different  Mitres,  and 
Making  Patterns  for  all  kinds  of  Plain  and  Circular  Work.  Also, 
lables  of  Weights,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  other 
Matter  calculated  to  Benefit  the  Trade.  By  CHARLES  A.  VAILE. 
Illustrated  by  twenty-one  plates.  4to $5.00 

VILLE. — On  Artificial  Manures : 

Their  Chemical  Selection  and  Scientific  Application  to  Agriculture. 
A  series  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Vincennes, 
during  1867  and  1874-75.  By  M.  GEORGES  VILLE.  Translated  and 
Edited  by  \ViLLlAM  CROOKES,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings.  8vo.,  450  pages  .  ".  1  .  .  .  $6.00 

VILLE.— The  School  of  Chemical  Manures  : 
Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents.     From 
the  French  of  M.  GEO.  VILLE,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer.    With  Illustrations.     I2mo.  ....         $1.25 

VOGDES.— The  Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket- Companion 

and  Price-Book: 

Consisting  of  a  Short  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Decimals,  Duo- 
decimals, Geometry  and  Mensuration;  with  Tables  of  United  States 
Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strengths,  etc.,  of  Iron,  Wood,  Stone, 
Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quantities  of  Materials  in  given  Sizes 
and  Dimensions  of  Wood,  Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete 
Bills  of  Prices  for  Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting;  also,  Rules  for 
Computing  and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Paint- 
ing, Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
FRANK  W.  VOGDES,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged,  revised, 
and  corrected.  In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full-bound,  pocket-book 

form,  gilt  edges $2.OO 

Cloth         .         .  -         .      '  * •  --   ...        .        •        .  1.50 

VVAHL. — Galvanoplastic  Manipulations  : 
A  Practical  Guide  tor  the  Gold  and  Silver  Electroplater  and  the  Gal- 
vanoplastic Operator.  Comprising  the  Electro-Deposition  of  all 
Metals  by  means  of  the  Battery  and  the  Dynamo-Electric  Machine, 
as  well  as  the  most  approved  Processes  of  Deposition  by  Simple  Im- 
mersion, with  Descriptions  of  Apparatus,  Chemical  Products  employed 
in  the  Art,  etc.  Based  largely  on  the  "  Manipulations  Hydroplas- 
tiques"  of  ALFRED  ROSELEUR.  By  WILLIAM  H.  WAHL,  Ph.  D. 
(  Heid),  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute.  Illustrated  by  189  en- 

gravings.     8vo.,  656  pages #7-5° 

WALTON.— Coal-Mining  Described  and  Illustrated : 
-By  THOMAS  H.  WALTON,  Mining  Engineer.     Illustrated  by  24  large 
and  elaborate  Plates,  after  Actual  Workings  and  Apparatus.  $5.00 


28         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


WARE.— The  Sugar  Beet. 

\  Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe,  Varieties 
of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage,  Seeds  and  Sowing, 
Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Transportation,  Conserva- 
tion, Feeding  Qualities  of  the  Heel  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  LEWIS 
S.  WARE,  C.  E.,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  ninety  engravings.  8vo. 

£4-00 

WARN.— The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 
For  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers,  etc.  Contain- 
ing a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems;  also,  Practical  and  Simple 
Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns  required  in  the  ditlerent 
branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By  REUBEN  H.  WARN,  Practical 
Tin- Plate  Worker.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing 
Instructions  for  Boiler- Making,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Soluls, 
Rules  for  Calculating  the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  .  $3.00 

WARNER.— New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for  the 

Computation  of  Earth-work  : 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final  Estimates, 
of  Students  in  Engineering,  and  of  Contractors  and  other  non-profes- 
sional Computers.  In  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise;  Part  II.  A  Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Ap|x_-n<Mx. 
Containing  Notes  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I.;  Explana- 
tions of  the  Construction  of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a 
Treatise  upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  numerous  original  engravings,  comprising 
explanatory  cuts  for  Definitions  and  Problems,  Stereometric  Scales 
and  Diagrams,  and  a  scries  of  Lithographic  Drawings  from  Models  . 
Showing  all  the  Combinations  of  Solid  Forms  which  occur  in  Railroad 
Excavations  and  Embankments.  By  JOHN  WARNER,  A.  M.,  Mining 
and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  14  Plates.  A  new,  revised 
and  improved  edition.  8vo.  ......  $4.00 

WATSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe  : 
Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all  kinds, 
Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods;  Dyeing,  Coloring,  and  French 
Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various  methods  practised  to 
produce  Elaborate  work  with  Dispatch,  and  at  Small  Ex|>ense.  By 
EGBERT  P.  WATSON,  Author  of  ••  The  Modern  Practice  of  American 
Machinists  and  Engineers."  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  $1.50 

WATSON.— The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and 

Engineers  : 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  Latho 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work  generally ,  with 
the  most  Economical  Speed  for  the  same ;  the  Results  verified  by 
Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise,  and  on  the  Floor.  Togethci 


HLNRV  <JAKL\   BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          29 


Sl^'SS?  ^a"age™^  Ec°nomy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam 


Maker.     Illustrated  by  large  Drawls  of  the  best  Power  Looms. 

WATT.—  The  Art  of  Soap  Making  ; 

A  Practical  Hand-book  of  the  Manufacture  of  Hard  and  Soft  Soaps, 
Toilet  Soaps,  etc  including  many  New  Processes,  and  a  Chapter  on 
ry  GlyCerine  from  Waste  ^y5'  fiy  ALEXANDER 


*        •      "•-  '  "    •        .  ,      $3.00 

WEATHERLY.—  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar,  Crys- 

tallizing, Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods, 
And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  etc.,  in  which  are  explained 
in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods  of  Manufactur' 
ing  every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar  Goods,  as  sold  by 
Confectioners  and  others.     I2mo.       ...  *i  CQ 

WEDDING.—  Elements  of  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron. 
By  Dr.  HERMANN  WEDDING,  Royal  Privy  Counsellor  of  Mines,  Ber- 
lin, Prussia.  Translated  from  the  second  revised  and  rewritten  Ger- 
man edition.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Ag- 
ricultural College  at  Eldena,  Prussia.  Edited  by  WILLIAM  H. 
WAHL,  Ph.D.,  Secretary  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia. 
Illustrated  by  about  250  engravings.  8vo.,  about  500  pages  (In  prep- 
aration.} ........ 

iVEINHOLD.—  Introduction  to  Experimental  Physics,  Theo- 

retical and  Practical. 

Including  directions  for  Constructing  Physical  Apparatus  and  for 
Making  Experiments.  By  ADOLF  F.  WEINHOLD,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  School  at  Chemnitz.  Translated  and  edited,  with 
the  author's  sanction,  by  BENJAMIN  LOEWY,  F.  R.  A.  S.,  with  a 
preface,  by  G.  C.  FOSTER,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  three  colored  plate* 
and  404  wood-cuts.  8  vo.,  848  pages  .  .  .  .. 

WIGHTWICK.—  Hints  to  Young  Architects: 

Comprising  Advice  to  those  who,  while  yet  at  school,  are  destined 
to  the  Profession;  to  such  as,  having  passed  their  pupilage,  are  about 
to  travel  ;  and  to  those  who,  having  completed  their  education,  are 
about  to  practise.  Together  with  a  Model  Specification  involvii.g  a 
great  variety  of  instructive  and  suggestive  matter.  By  GEORGB 
WIGHTWICK,  Architect.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged;  comprising  Treatises  on  the  Principles  of  Construction 
and  Design.  By  G.  HUSKISSON  GUILLAUME,  Architect.  Numerous 
Illustrations.  One  vol.  I2mo.  .  .  ...  .  .  $2.OC 

WILL.—  Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 
With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis.     By  Pro- 
essor   HEINRICH  WILL,  of  Giessen,  Germany.     Third   American. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


from  the  eleventh  German  edition.     Edited  by  CHARLES  F.  HIMES, 
Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa. 
8vo.  .  .......        $1.50 

WILLIAMS.—  On  Heat  and  Steam: 

Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation,  and  Explo- 
sion.    By  CHARLES  WYE  WILLIAMS,  A.  I.  C.  E.     Illustrated  8vo. 


WILSON.—  A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers  : 

Their  Strength,  Construction,  and  Economical  Working.  By  ROBERT 
WILSON.  Illustrated  I2mo.  .  ......  $2.50 

WILSON.  —  First  Principles  of  Political  Economy: 

\Vith  Reference  to  Statesmanship  and  the  Progress  of  Civilization. 
By  Professor  W.  D.  WILSON,  of  the  Cornell  University.  A  new  and 
revised  edition.  I2mo  ........  $l.$° 

WOHLER.—  A  Hand-book  of  Mineral  Analysis. 

By  F.  W5HLER,  Professor  of  Chemi>try  in  the  University  of  Gottin- 
gen.  Edited  by  HENRY  B.  NASON,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Renssalaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  New  York.  Illustrated 
I2mo  ...........  J>3-OO 

WORSSAM.-On  Mechanical  Saws: 

From  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1869.  By  S.  W. 
WORSSAM,  JR.  Illustrated  by  eighteen  large  plates.  8vo.  .  $2.50 


RECENT  ADDITIONS. 

ANDERSON— The  Prospector's  Hand-Book: 

A  Guide  for  the  Prospector  and  Traveler  in  Search  of  Metal  Bearing 
or  other  Valuable  Minerals.  By  J.  W.  ANDERSON.  52  Illustrations. 
I2mo $,.so 

BILGRAM.— Slide-Valve  Gears  : 

A  new,  graphical  method  for  Analyzing  the  Action  of  Slide-Valves, 
moved  by  Eccentrics,  Link  Motions,  and  Cut-off  Geais,  offering  easy 
means  for  properly  designing  Valves  and  Valve-Gears,  and  for  estab- 
lishing the  comparative  merits  of  their  various  constructions.  By 
HUGO  BILGRAM,  M.  E.  Illustrated.  i6mo.  .  .  .  $1.00 

CREW. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Petroleum : 

Comprising  its  Origin,  Geology,  Geographical  Distribution,  History, 
Chemistry,  Mining,  Technology,  Uses  and  Transportation.  Together 
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